
Rnnk . qFG 



School-Houses. 



Y£5 





By James Joho]S"]^ot. 



Architectukal Designs 



S. E. HEWES 



NEW YORK: 
J. W. SCHEEMEKHORN & CO. 

18 71. 






Entered according to Act of Confn"08s, In the year 1871, by 

J. W. Schcrmerhorn & Co., 
In tbo Ofllco of tlio Librttrliin of Congress, at Wasblngton. 



By I'ranafer 

NOV 16 -926 



Little, Rknnie & Co., 

Stcrcotypers, Eloctr<it.vpei-s, ami Trlntors, 

Nkw Yokk. 



DEDICATION. 



To lloa. EziiA Cornell, 

Founder of Cornell University : 
An Institution which, resting upon our Common School System, 
is its perfect supplement ; which, discarding the narrow formalism 
of a single course of study, recognizes the activities and interests of 
cvery-day life as vital parts of its instruction ; which makes culture 
wait upon use, and furnishes opportunity to multiform aspiraiion ; 
and which proposes ultimately to furnish instruction to " any person 
in any study," making questions of race, color, or sex irrelevant and 
impertinent ; — this work is respectfully inscribed by 

The Author. 



PREFACE. 



The work of the author upon " Country School-Houses," 
published in 1858, was the first effort made in this coun- 
try to apply the principles of architectural 
science to the construction of school-houses. 
The reports received from State Superin- 
tendents, and from various other sources, 
show that this work has contributed ma- 
terially to the improvement of school-house 
architecture within the past ten years. 

The cons tan tl}^ increasing demand for a 
better class of school-houses in country dis- 
tricts has led to the preparation of the present^ volume. 
An endeavor has been made to make it as complete as 
possible, using all the best material of the former work 
and all the recent improvements in the construction of 
school-houses and school furniture. 

It contains a great variety of plans and elevations, with 
full and accurate descriptions, so that varied tastes may 




6 PREFACE. 

be gratified, and any carpenter can construct a building 
precisely as described. Tt also contains a full description 
of the most approved school furniture and apparatus, so 
that a school may be supplied with everything necessary 
to its highest success without recourse to untried and 
costly experiments. 

To make the work of greater value to every school dis- 
trict, hints and suggestions in regard to school arrange- 
ment, and the care and use of school furniture and 
apparatus, have been frequently interspersed through its 
pages. 

With the hope that it may contribute to the improve- 
ment of our common schools, this work is respectfully 
submitted to teachers, school-officers, and all who are 
interested in the cause of education. 




CONTENTS. 



CHAPTEE I. 

GENEKAL SURVEY. 



Progress of Architecture — School-Houses — Log Houses — Necessity of Good 
School-Houses — Present Defects — Unsightliness — Poor Construction — 
Smallness of Size — Want of Ventilation — Inadequate Yards and Play- 
grounds — Want of Necessary Out-buildings 13 



CHAPTEE IL 

EXTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 

Principles to be obsei-ved — The Location — Avoidance of Malaria — Central 
Situation — The Lot — Size— Form — Position of the School-House — Out- 
side Structure— Entrances — Wood-House — Walks-^Fence 30 

CHAPTEE HI. 

INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 

Size of the School-Room — Freedom of Movement — Breathing Room — Shape 
of the Room — Seats and Desks — Double and Single Desks — Seats and 
Desks Facing the front— Side Rooms — Ventilation — Spaces — Cleanliness 
— Place foi Blackboards — Platforms , 26 

CHAPTEE IV. 



Want of Care in the Arrangement of Light — Results of Recent Investiga- 
tions — Defects of Present Systems — Dim Lights — Glare of Light — Proper 
An-angement of Windows— Cross Lights— Height of Windows— Groups 
of Windows — Blinds — Size of Glass 34 



O CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER V. 

HEATING AND VENTILATION. 

TAGB 

Problems to be Solved — Economy of Fuel — Equal Distribution of Heat — 
Plentiful Supply of Pure Air — Composition of Air — Sources of Carbonic 
Acid Gas — Sources of other Impurities — Amount of Air necessarj' — Ven- 
tilation Indispensable — Responsibility for Neglect — Radiation of Heat — 
Conduction of Heat — Capacity of Bodies to receive Heat — How Air is 
heated — Effects of Heat upon Air — Impurities in the Room — Fire-places 
— Stoves — Windows — Openings in the Ceiling — Double Openings in the 
Ceiling — Hot- Air Furnaces — Mistakes in Arrangements — The Best Ar- 
rangement — Chimneys and Flues — Stoves — Operations of the Stove and 
Chimney — Operations of the Hot Air — Perfection of Action — Moisture — 
Conclusion 38 

CHAPTER VI. 

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION. 

Building and Architecture — Uses of Building — Materials — Workmanship — 
Responsibility for Bad Construction — Architectural Appearance — Greek 
Architecture — Characteristics and Uses — Loss of Room — Gothic Archi- 
tecture — Modern Architecture — Leading Ideas in the Construction of 
School-Houses 53 

CHAPTER VII. 

PLANS AND ELEVATIONS. 

General Designs — Cheap Houses — More Elaborate Buildings — Shape and 
Size of Rooms — Design I., with Three Elevations— Design II., with 
Four Elevations — Design III., with Five Elevations — Design IV., with 
Five Elevations— Design V., with Six Elevations — Union School-Houses 
— Defects of Ungraded Schools — Advantages of Gradation — Primary 
Schools— Intermediate Schools— High Schools— The University— Nor- 
mal Schools— Work Schools— Houses adapted to Union Schools— De- 
sign VI., with Six Elevations- Design VII., with Seven Elevations — 
The Use of Concrete for Building— Design VIII., with Three Elevations- 
Design IX., with One Elevation— Design X., with One Elevation- 
Design XL, with One Elevation 60 

CHAPTER VIII. 

FURNITURE. 

Importance of Good Furniture— Health, Comfort, and Convenience of Pu- 
pils—General Furniture— Scrapers — Mats— Brooms and Brushes— Pails 
—Umbrella Stands— Clothes Hooks— Fire Apparatus— Clock— Ther- 
mometer— Special Furniture— What is Demanded— Direction for Con- 
structing Desks— Table of Heights lUO 



CONTENTS. 9 

CHAPTER IX. 

APPARATUS. 

PAGE 

Mistaken Notions— Simple Apparatus — General Apparatus— Blackboards- 
Direction for Making — The Slated Wall— Paper Surttice— Liquid Slating 
— Stone Slates — Blackboard Erasers— Globes — Apparatus for Primary 
Schools — Objects to be gained— Natural Objects— Form— Geometric 
Solids — Specimens of the Animal Kingdom — Plants and Trees — Minerals 
and Crystals— Size — Measures — Tables of ]\Ieasure — Applications — 
Weight— Balance^Color — Objects illustrating Color — Order — How cul- 
tivated—Classification—Results — Cabinet — Metals — Minerals— Chemical 
Products— Vegetation— Grains— Food— Products of the Sea— Animal 
Products — Manufactured Articles — Applications — Slates — Paper Slates — 
Playthings — Cards — Pictures— Stereoscopic Views — Numerical Frame — 
Special Apparatus — Maps— Philosophical Apparatus— Tellurian — Magnet 
—Orrery 205 

CHAPTEE X. 

OUT-BUILDINGS. 

General Neglect of Proper Out-buildings— Extract from New York Reports 
— Extract from Connecticut Reports — Number of Privies — Situation — 
Character— Principles to be observed— Necessity of a School Lot — Re- 
forms needed — General Construction — Privy for Girls' Yard — Privy for 
Boys' Yard — Care ' 319 

CHAPTER XL 

ARRANGING AND ORNAMENTING GROUNDS. 

Grounds, why needed- Place for Exercise— Necessity for Exercise— Health 
—Mental Development— Systematic Exercise — Character and Importance 
of Playgrounds— Gymnastic Apparatus— Ornamenting Grounds— Trees 
—A. J. Downing upon Trees— Elements of Beauty and Variety — Eflect 
of Trees— Selecting Trees— Varieties that harmonize with the Landscape 
—Kinds of Trees— Arrangement— Straight Rows— Single Trees— Groups 
—Principles of grouping— Openings— Shrubs— Hedges— How arranged 
— Flowers — Conclusion 225 

CHAPTER XII. 

ARCHITECTURE AN EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE. 

Uses of Buildings— Province of Architecture— Taste— Material Pursuits- 
Refinement— Change of Sentiment— Evidences of Change- Influences 
that affect Taste— Architectural Ideas— Proportion— Symmetry— Va- 
riety— Harmony— Unity— Architecture in the Old World— Effect of 
Beautiful Forms— Principles of Taste 2'6'3 



10 ' CONTENTS. 



APPENDIX 



CHAPTER I. 

GRADED SCHOOLS. 

PAOB 

Town System versus District System — Comparative Incompetence of Dis- 
trict Officers — The Town the True Unit for Educational Purposes — 
Changes of Teachers — Equalizing Taxation — Importance of Classifica- 
tion — Effects of grading Schools — Expenditure — Testimony of Hon. 
Henry Barnard — Faults of District Organizations — Anticipated Difficul- 
ties removed — Opinions of Mr. Boutwell, Secretary of Massachusetts 
Board of Education — Summary of the Advantages of the Town System 339 



CHAPTER n. 

HEATING AND VENTILATION. 

Ventilation in general — Stoves — Their Faults and their Uses — Advantages 
of Stoves on the score of Economy — Heat as a Sanitaiy Agent — Dr. 
Franklin's Stove — Use of Ventilating Stoves during the War — Use of 
Stoves in the School-room — Heat, how transmitted — Indifference of 
People to the subject of Ventilation — Deaths from Foul Air — Compara- 
tive Cheapness of the True System of Ventilation — Ventilation of Pub- 
lic Buildings ; Tests of Purity of Air— Temperature of Churches and 
Public Halls — Natunil Ventilators— Forces to be considered in devising 
any System of Ventilation — Pure Air of more importance than Food — 
Sunshine Nature's Great Disinfectant ; Importance of Direct Sunshine 
to the School-room; Folly of Thick Curtains and Closed Shutters — 
Light regulated by Blinds — Objections to Sunshine and Air — Too much 
Vitality and Strength resulting 361 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGES. 

Book Rest 30. 

Chimneys 17, 31, 38, 49, 50, 51. 

Cornice 19. 

Cupola and Gables 18, 20, 23, 39, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 62, 85, 

98, 115, 122, 128, 131, 132, 156, 184, 187, 188, 

218, 233, 234. 

Dilapidated School-house 16. 

Doorways 13, 21, 23, 26, 30, 57, 61, 128, 133, 137. 

Elevations in Perspective .... 63, 66, 69, 72, 75, 78, 81, 84, 87, 90, 93, 96, 99, 102, 

105, 108, 111, 114, 117, 120, 123, 126, 129, 136, 

139, 143, 145, 148, 151, 154, 157, 160, 163, 166, 

169, 172, 176, 179, 182, 185, 189, 193. 

Fences 24, 25. 

Ground Plans 27, 57, 73, 86, 103, 116, 143, 155, 161, 178, 184, 

188, 192. 

Log School-house 14. 

Old-fashioned School-house... 15. 

Out-buildings 219, 222, 223. 

Plan of Grounds 225,230. 

Seats and Desks 28, 29. 

Settee 33. 

Stove 44. 

Teacher's Desk 32. 

Ventilation 47, 48. 

Windows 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 44, 45, 61, 73, 131, 134, 138, 

236, 387. 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



CHAPTER I. 



GENERAL SURVEY. 



For the past few years architectural science has made 
rapid and decided progress. In nearly every kind of 
buildings, improvements have been made, 
both in regard to external appearance and 
internal arrangement. Evidences of this 
progress may be seen in the superior elegance 
of the modern public edifices and private 
residences of our cities and villages, and in 
the greater comfort and convenience of the 
later farm-houses in the country. The in- 
crease of architectural knowledge has cor- 
respondingly developed the general taste, 
which in its turn demands a greater knowledge. Thus 
one step in improvement leads to others still further in 
advance. 

Of all buildings, however, the last to feel this progress- 
ive impulse were school-houses. In cities and large vil- 
lages, where the necessity exists of erecting large and 
costly buildings, it is true that public attention has been 




PiK. 1. 



14 



OTTR SCHOOL-HOUSES 



turned in this direction, and there has been developed a 
distinctive architecture which applies the principles of 
science to the wants and necessities of the school. But 
in the rural districts generally too little attention has 
been given to the matter. The principles developed in 
the building of large union schools are not applicable to 
the wants of the smaller school districts. 

The old log school- 
houses can be remem- 
bered by most of the older 
inhabitants. It was a 
necessity of primitive 
times, and was on an 
equality with the dwell- 
ings of the people. A 
better kind of structure 
has succeeded it. though 
we find in the last report 
of the Superintendent of 
New York that one hun- 
dred and twenty log school-houses are still in existence 
in the Empire State. 

The reports of the Superintendents of several States, 
within the past few years, show that an improvement has 
gone on in many sections, indicating a genuine educational 
revival. And yet a large proportion of the school-houses 
in the country are but illy adapted to meet the high 
requirements of modern educational ideas. Even the 
newer and costlier houses are often built without a proper 
knowledge of the wants and necessities of the school, 
while a very large number of the older houses are utterly 
unfit for human occupancy. 

That good school-houses are indispensable to the very 
existence of good schools is a proposition that needs no 




Fig. 2.— LOG SCHOOL-HOrSE. 



GENERAL SURVEY. 



15 



demonstration. It is universally accepted by educators, 
and is beginning to be apprehended by the community at 
large. But with all the progress that has been made, 
school-houses are still deficient in the following re- 
spects : 

1. They are unsightly in appearance. A traveller 
passing through a section of country can readily distin- 
guish the school-house by these distinctions. It is situ- 




Fig. 3. — OLD FASHIONED SCHOOL-HOIISK. 



ated in a forlorn and lonely place. It exhibits every 
mark of neglect and dilapidation. It is entirely exposed 
to the depredations of stray cattle and unruly boys, by 
being situated in the street and not protected by a 
fence. It is unpainted, and nearly half unglazed. Its 
style is nondescript, being too small for a barn, too 
deficient in the elements of just proportion for a dwell- 
ing, and too much neglected for the out-buildings of a 
farm — in short, too repulsive in all respects, exhibiting 
too many marks of parsimony to be anything but a school- 
house. 

It seems to have been erected simply for shelter, and 
with the smallest cost in the outset ; to call it cheapness 
or economy would be a misnomer. It stands a vile 



16 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



ofifence against good taste, and an ugly excrescence upon 
.the landscape. It makes no appeal to the higher senti- 
ments, and, consequently, no effort can preserve the 
building or fixtures from disfigurement and ruin. Every 
teacher knows the difficulty of protecting the school- 
house and furniture from the ubiquitous Yankee jack- 
knife. The result is, that the building, unsightly when 
new, becomes more so through the rudeness which 
its very appearance stimulates. The busy fingers of 
time may soften its outlines and spread over its sur- 
face sober tints of brown ; but the innate ugliness of 
the structure defies all efforts to make it other than a 
monstrosity. 

2. They are poorly built. The foundations are often 
so imperfectly laid that they soon tumble, and the build- 



•^ jS^ 







-t ■j'.iM^i 









Fig. 4. — DILAPIDATED SCHOOL-HOUSE. 



ings are racked to pieces or stand askew. The frames 
and finish are of the cheapest kind, and soon- the winds 
find their way through in every direction. The desks 
and benches are ingeniously inconvenient and uncom- 
fortable, producing pains and aches innumerable. Most 
I)eople of the present generation have a vivid and painful 
recollection of the seats of our old school-houses, without 



GENERAL SURVEY 17 

backs, and often -too high to permit the feet to touch the 
floor. The suffering and uneasiness so produced were 
ahnost equal to the punishment of exposure at the pillory 
or confinement in the stocks, bestowed in olden times 
upon criminals. The whole construction of the building, 
both external and internal, were such that it merited 
and received no repair, and soon lapsed into a mass of 
ruins. Although great improvements have been made 
within the present generation, the ideas concerning the 
construction of school-houses are still crude in the ex- 
treme, and poor buildings are the rule rather than the 
exception. 

3. They are not of sufficient size. The room is so 
confined that the pupils are forced into uncomfortable and 
inconvenient proximity to each other. Their work is 
interrupted and their personal rights are violated. The 
young, the weak, and the innocent are forced into the 
immediate atmosphere of coarseness and impurity, with- 
out a possibility of counteracting influences. Again, the 
ceilings are so low that there is an inadequate supply of 
fresh air, and,' as a consequence of all this, physical as 
well as moral disease is engendered. Proper discipline 
in such schools is impossible, as the inexorable laws of 
nature oppose the teacher's work. 

4. They are not properly ventilated. The quantity 
of air, limited at first, shortly becomes impure, and there 
are no means of changing it. A poisoning ^^n^ 
process then commences, the virulence of ^^W 
which is in direct ratio to the tightness of J 

the room. A badly built or dilapidated Jp,_ 
school-house, under these circumstances, be- ^^■|"^^ 
comes a positive blessing, by preventing the r Py-j^^ 
exclusion of air from without. Besides the ^'s-s- 

injury to health, the vitiated air of the school-room, by its 



18 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



stupefying action on the brain, prevents intellectual ac- 
tion, and so defeats the purposes of the school. 

5. They have inadequate yards and play-grounds. 
Even in country places, where land is very cheap, the 
school-house is frequently placed directly on the line of 
the street, and generally at the corner where several 
roads meet. Not one inch of ground is set apart for the 
use of the pupils when out of the school-room. There is 
no place for recreation or privacy, all being exposed to 
the public eye. The street is the only play-ground, and 
tilth, within doors and without, is the consequence. With 
such an arrangement, it is impossible to inculcate those 
lessons of neatness and refinement which are among the 
most important objects of education. 

6. They are destitute of the necessary^ out-build- 
ings. In many cases there is no privy, and in many 

others there is at best but one 
for a large school of both sexes. 
A man in a Christian land, who 
would erect a house for his home 
and not provide a privy, would 
be considered worse than a hea- 
then ; yet, in multitudes of our 
country districts, this indispen- 
sable adjunct of civilization is al- 
together omitted, although in a 
^'s-^- school both sexes are brought 

together without the purifying and restraining influence 
which belongs to the household. Every feeling of refine- 
ment and decency is outraged by the exposure here 
indicated, and, in some measure, the same results ensue 
from having but one small exposed privy for a large 
school. 

From these facts it will seem that there is a neces- 




GENERAL SURVEY. 19 

sity for reform in the construction of school buildings. 
Indeed, it is the united testimony of superintendents, 
committees of investigation, and boards of school visitors, 
that in many sections of country the pupils in school are 
worse provided for in all things pertaining to comfort, 
convenience, and the cultivation of good manners and 
morals, than the inmates of our pauper-houses, or the 
prisoners in our penitentiaries. 

An attention to these considerations is of primary 
importance in any scheme for the advancement and per- 
fection of our school system. The idea is becoming quite 
prevalent that manners and conduct should receive due 
attention in a true system of education, and that the 
claims of these vastly outweigh those of any branch of 
mere rote instruction, or, indeed, of any science. This 
idea forms a basis for the criticism of the systems of in- 
struction now in vogue, and is the key-note of the new 
education which the age demands. A large share of the 
neglect in these most vital of all departments of education 
is attributable to the want of attention to the physical 
comforts of pupils in the construction and furnishing of 
school-houses. 

The remedy for these evils will be shown in the suc- 
ceeding chapters. 



Pig. 7. 



CHAPTER II. 



EXTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 



In the construction and arrangements of school-houses, 
certain fundamental principles must be observed. These 
principles, in the order of importance, are 

HEALTH, CQMFORT, CONVENIENCE, and COST. 

It requires no argument to show that when 
this order is inverted, and cost is made the 
first consideration, the higher interests of 
the school must be neglected and true prog- 
ress rendered impossible. 

The preservation of health should be- 
considered of prime importance. Cost, 
comfort, and convenience should be subor- 
dinated to this. Unless our children can be 
educated in a way compatible with the preservation of 
their health, it were better at once to tear down our 
school-houses and abolish our school system. 

The location. — The location of the school-house should 
be at a distance from all sources of malaria. The foul, 
breath of decaying vegetation, or of stagnant water, be- 
comes a fruitful source of disease and death. Unseen, 
it insidiously does its work, and spreads the atmosphere 
of the charnel-house as far as its influence extends. The 
diseases seeming to be epidemic, which sometimes break 
out in schools, may often be traced to some neighboring 
swamp or marsh or heap of decaying vegetables. Some 




EXTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 21 

manufactories generate disagreeable gases which, if 
breathed for any considerable time, are deleterious in the 
extreme. The school-house should be placed . 

at a distance from all these sources of disease. f 

It should also be situated away from the noise & 

and dust of the street. There is scarcely any- M/m\ 
thing more annoying or unAvholesome than the Mj^^\ 
clouds of dust which are driven along the iL 
highway. Let the location, if possible, be upon m 
a hill-side, where it may be free from these 
annoyances, and where the purest air is supplied 11 
in unstinted measure. For the moral health of d ftn-^n,, 
the pupils, let the school-house be placed at a ^'^'^' 
distance from the places where scenes of brutality or 
debauchery are ever exhibited. If no natural obstacle 
oppose, the centre of the district would seem to be the 
best location for the school-house ; this centre having 
reference, of course, to population as well as distance. 
If an acre of land is taken, perhaps it might most conve- 
niently be laid out in a plot sixteen rods front and ten 
deep. Any other form might be adopted, and, under 
some circumstances, another might be preferable. 

Of the situation of the lot, in reference to scenery, etc., 
more will be said in the chapter upon ornamental grounds. 

The lot. — A large and commodious school-lot is of 
prime necessity. Without it, it is impossible to attain 
some of the most essential ends of education. A little 
attention on the part of trustees will secure an ample 
lot at very little expense. When public attention has 
been sufficiently turned to the importance of this subject, 
it will be comparatively easy to secure the donation of a 
school-lot, or, at least, the purchase of one at a small 
price. When the wants of the school, and the necessities 
of education are taken into consideration, one acre of land 



22 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

at least, is required for every school ; and when such a 
lot can be obtained, a school-house should never be erected 
upon a smaller one. 

It sometimes happens that the owners of land near the 
centre of the district refuse to sell for school purposes at 
any price. Such narrowness and illiberality is at present, 
in most of our States, without remedy. But we think, as 
popular education is now recognized as one of the func- 
tions of the State, it would be well to provide for taking 
the land at an appraisal by disinterested persons, as land 
for highways, railroads, and other public purposes is now 
taken. A law allowing the trustees of districts and the 
town authorities to locate the school-house lot, with or 
without the consent of the owner of the land, would be a 
highly salutary one, and would prevent strife, while ren- 
dering an important service to the schools. 

A law substantially embodying the views given above 
has been enacted in the State of New York, and we be- 
lieve in some of the other States, and the results have 
been beneficial. By this law the schools are placed be- 
yond the caprice or obstinacy of those who may possess 
the land most desirable for the site of the school-house. 

Position of the buildings. — In a lot sixteen rods by 
ten, the house should stand very nearly in the centre. 
This would be at a sufficient distance from the street to 
avoid noise and dust, with room enough in the rear for 
the necessary out-buildings. It would also divide the 
yard into two parts, for boys and girls. In any lot, the 
house should be placed in the middle as to width, and at 
a distance from the street, so that the out-buildings may 
be thrown into the back-ground. 

Outside structure. — Buildings of small size, and con- 
sisting of but a single room, in these designs, admit of 
but little architectural display, within the limits of sound 



EXTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 



23 




Fig. 10. 



economy. In deciding upon the size and plan of the 
buildings, and the arrangement of the doors, windows, 
and roof, the first care should be to 
provide for health and comfort. Be- 
sides this primary consideration, due 
attention should be given to the dura- 
bility of the structure, and to the ob- 
servance of the laws of architecture 
in the proportion and arrangements 
of the building and its several 
parts. 

In the plans and details of this work 
an attempt has been made to carry 
these ideas into practical execution. 
A sufiQcient variety of elevations has 
been given to permit the exercise of 
different tastes. The parts have 
been arranged so as to meet the requirements of archi- 
tectural law, but outside appearance has been subordi- 
nated to practical use. 

In most cases it will be observed that separate en- 
trances for boys and girls have been provided. This 
arrangement is regarded as highly impor- 
tant. It prevents improprieties between 
the sexes, while passing in and out of the 
school-room. The room in the lobby is also 
used for a clothes-room, at a manifest saving 
of expense. 

In most of the plans proposed, the wood- 
house is placed directly in the rear, so that 
a portion of it may serve for a back hall. This arrange- 
ment contributes to harmony of external appearance, and 
prevents the out-door air from flowing directly into the 
school-room ; thus, serving a double purpose, the wood- 




Fig. 11. 



24 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



house is very desirable. A basement, however, might be 
prepared for the storage of fuel. 

Walks. — That is a false economy which refuses or 
neglects to furnish the necessary walks in and about the 
school premises. Generally but a step removed from the 
carriage-path in the street, and without walks of any 
description anywhere in the vicinity, except a single path 
of the native soil, the wonder is that the school-house is 
not more rather than less offensive. During some seasons 
of the year the children must wade through mud and 
water to reach the school, and not one foot of dry space 
is provided where they can cleanse themselves until they 
enter the house itself. 

The consequence is that dirt is everywhere, and tidi- 
ness is impossible. To remed}^ this, arrangements should 
be made to preclude the necessity of getting into the mud 
within the school-yard, and to enable the pupils to re- 
move it from their shoes when coming in from the street. 
A plank or gravel path should be laid from the front gate 
to the front door. The steps at the door should be large 
and commodious. These steps, and perhaps also a portion 
of the walk, should be provided with scrapers. Plank 
walks should also extend from the back entrance to the 
privies, and perhaps around the sides of the school-house. 

iUU LiUULIi 




nnnnnnn 



Fig. 12. 



Fence. — The school-lot can never be kept in order 
unless it is inclosed by a good and substantial fence ; this 



EXTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 



25 



fence should be built of good materials, and put up in a 
substantial manner. A picket, or a post-and-rail fence, 
would answer every purpose. The gates should be built 
strong and heavy, and so arranged as to shut themselves. 
It might be well to set posts within the gates in such a 
manner that cattle could not get in, even if the gates 
should be left open. The fence that divides the yard 
should be of matched boards, and from eight to ten feet 
high, faced on the boys' side. The wood-house door 
should open into the boys' yard. In a succeeding chapter 
the subject of out-houses will be treated more at large. 




Fig. 13. 



CHAPTER ITT. 



IN'I'KKNAI- AK1{AN(JKMKNTS. 




Fi.'. 14. 



In ihc iirrniiLiHMiKMil of \\\v inUM'ioi' of (lie scliool-room 

the sumo principles should !)C considorcd as in (lie oxtor- 

-T-T-'v iKil slriu'luro, and in tlie same oihUm-, viz., 

: ■ 4| \ lioallli, comfort, convtMuenco, and cost. A 

1 mistake made may not only in the (Mid be 

exceedingly costly, but may go far to defeat 

the ends of education. 

Si/i<: OK 'I'UM SI11I00I--K00M. — This is a 
consideration of great importance. Every 
pupil should have sunicient room to sit 
and move without being conlined or Jostled. 
There should bo sulliciont space in the room 
lor a. largo reservoir of air. Packing children close to- 
gether, so that the breath and atmosphere of each is shared 
by his neighbors, is an unmitigated evil. Every child has 
a right to his own ])ers()nality and his own share of nneon- 
taniinatiHl air, and whatever doi)rives him of these be- 
comes an outrage. T'his is often done, however, by the 
closene.^s oi' contact with others inti> which he is forced, 
ami bv the limited capacity of the a}>artmeiit in which he 
is compelled to sit. 

A school-room should also be sulViciently lai'go to fur- 
nish each i)upil with space enough for a desk and chair, 
and for iVoo and unobstructed movement. There should 
also bo room for the i)orsonal accommodation of the 



INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 



27 



teacher, and for purposes of recitation. The height of 
the smallest school-room should never be less than twelve 
feet, and this should be increased to sixteen feet in the 
larger houses. Comfort and convenience in sitting and 
moving about depend upon the area of the room ; the 
quantity of air, upon the area, and the height combined. 
In the plans furnished in this work, eighteen feet area, 
and nearly two hundred and fifty cubic feet of air, have 
been appropriated to each pupil. 

Shape of the room. — Of all rectangular forms, a square 
room will give the greatest amount of space, in j)roportion 
to the extent of 
outside walls. 
Many teachers, 
however, prefer | 
a room one- 
fourth or one- 
fifth longer than 
its width ; and 
probably no 
better form can 
be devised than this, or one between this and square. 
When the parallelogram is used, it will be found more 
convenient to leave the space for the teacher's desk, and 
recitation benches, upon the end, instead of the side. The 
octagonal form is thought by some to be peculiarly 
adapted to school purposes, and specimens have been 
presented in this work. 

Seats and desks. — For the health and comfort of the 
pupil, the height of the seats should be so graduated as 
to enable him to set his feet squarely upon the floor. A 
contrary custom often produces suffering and a distortion 
of the lower limbs. Seats without backs are also to be 
deprecated. To relieve the overstrained muscles unnatu- 




Fig. 15. 



28 



OUR SCIIOOL-nOUSES. 



ral postures arc assumed, and a crooked spine is the very 
probable consequence. 




Fig. 16.— CORNELL PRIMARY SETTEE AND BOOK REST. 

In a majority of the country schools the onl}" seats used 
are wooden benches with fiat surfaces and straight backs. 




Fig. 17.— NEW AMERICAN SCHOOL DESK AND SETTEE. 

They are furnished because they are cheap. No thoudit 
is given to the constant weariness and discomfort of the 



INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 



29 



pupils who occupy them, nor to the annoyance which the 
uneasiness engendered occasions to the teacher and school. 
Yet no principle is more firmly established than that 
physical comfort is a necessary condition to the highest 
state of mental and moral improvement. The details of 
the form, size, and structure of seats and desks is given in 
the chapter on school furniture. 

Many methods for seating school-houses have been pro- 
posed, and many experiments have been made to econo- 
mize room and to secure the greatest convenience. It 
now seems to be generally conceded that the best arrange- 
ment is that of single or double desks, placed in parallel 
rows, with aisles between of sufficient width to permit 
passage. By this plan the pupils all face one way, and 
the teacher can see them all at a glance. When the seats 
are arranged upon the sides of the room, with the open 
space in the centre, this is impossible, and discipline is 
almost out of question. Double desks are more econom- 
ical than single ones, as they cost less and take up less 
space in the room. 

The desks should always be placed so that the pupils 
may face the entrance. The reasons for this arrangement 
are obvious. The en- 
trance and exit of pupils 
or visitors will be sure to 
attract attention, and it 
is impossible to prevent 
this by any proper sys- 
tem of discipline. If the ^ 
backs of the pupils are 
toward the entrance, they 
will turn about whenever 

the door opens or closes. Fig. is.— new American settee (folding). 

presenting an unseemly appearance, as well as seriously 




30 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



interfering with study and recitation. Tliis habit of turn- 
ing once formed, will be practiced upon other occasions, 
to the great annoyance of the teacher and the subversion 
of discipline. Again, when strangers or others visit the 
school, or call at the school-room for any purpose, the 
teacher is obliged to receive them at the rear end of the 
room, instead of the front, which is awkward and incon- 
venient. It is as though the entrance to the parlor of a 
dwelling should be made through the kitchen. With the 
pupils facing the entrance, when the 
doors open, a glance is sufficient, with- 
out a change of posture or suspension 
of business, to satisfy the most vagrant 
curiosity. The teacher can receive his 
visitors at once, and in the proper place, 
without parade and without difficulty. 
Finally, the door or doors leading to the 
wood-house or back yard should be in 
the rear of the room, and this can only 
be when the front of the room is next 
to the front entrance. 
Side rooms. — In every school-house there should be a 
separate room for depositing hats, cloaks, etc., and in 
larger houses, another for library and ap- 
paratus. For the sake of economy and 
convenience, in the plans here given, the 
porch has been so arranged as to serve the 
double purpose of entr^^-way and clothes- 
room. In the smaller houses a single porch 
will be sufficient ; but in the larger ones a 
double porch should be provided, so that 
there may be ample room for the uses to 
which it is to be put, and a complete separation of the 
sexes. These rooms should be well provided with hooks 




Fig. 19. 




t'i" 20. 



INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. Ol 

and shelves. In the smaller houses a case for books and 
apparatus, answering every purpose, can be constructed 
upon one side of the school-room, in the place designated 
in the ])lans. In houses designed to accommodate more 
pupils than any one teacher can instruct, an additional 
room for recitation should be provided. A separate room 
for the teacher to occupy during recess and intermission, 
and to retire to when wearied and perplexed with the 
cares and duties of the day, is also very desirable ; but 
we fear this reasonable luxury will not be realized until 
public sentiment is made more liberal in educational mat- 
ters. 

Yentilation. — No school-room should be constructed 
Vv'ithout ample provision for the admission and circulation 
of pure air. This is habitually neglected, s^^^- 

and, inconsequence, the pupils suffer from i| J\i 

a constant diminution of their vital ener- |li|ji 

gies as well as from positive disease. The -^^% 
cost of an entirely adequate system of vcn- "^^1 |ii^. 
tilation is very inconsiderable, and no per- ,__^^^^fe 
sons in the erection of school-houses can Fig.^i. 

afford to neglect this most important arrangement. In the 
chapter upon ventilation the whole subject is discussed, 
and directions are given in detail for ventilation under all 
circumstances. 

Spaces. — Pupils should not be crowded too much to- 
gether, and so ample spaces are necessary in the school- 
room. The appearance of the room is greatl}^ improved 
by wide spaces, and the health of the pu|)ils is promoted 
by the greater supply of air. Roominess is also a neces- 
sarj" condition of quietude and orderly industry. The 
space in front of the desks should be sufficiently large for 
purposes of recitation ; not less than ten or twelve feet in 
the smallest rooms. 



32 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



A space of two or three feet should be left in the rear 
of the room for convenience of passage and for classes 
upon special occasions. The side aisles should be three 
or four feet' wide ; those between the rows of desks might 
vary from one and a half to two and a half feet. 

Cleanliness. — It scarcely comes within the province of 
this work to descant upon the importance to health of keep- 
ing the person and clothing clean ; yet it is a subject inti- 
mately connected with that of the wdiolesome ordering of 




Fi":. 22.— teacher's desk. 



the school-room. As health cannot be preserved without 
habits of personal neatness, so it is useless to inculcate 
these upon pupils while the dirty condition of the rooms 
which they are obliged to occupy forbids the acquisition 
or preservation of those habits. Besides, the fine dust 
which accumulates in a school-room, and which is thrown 
into the air by every motion, is breathed into the lungs, 
and there acts mechanically upon the delicate little air- 
cells, producing irritation, which may end in inflammation 
and consumption. 



INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 



33 



In the construction of the school-room, cleanliness 
should be kept constantly in view. The floor should be 
well planed, smoothed, and matched, and carefully nailed. 
The blackboards should be provided with ample troughs 
to catch the chalk-dust. The desks and seats should be 
so constructed as to permit the floor to be easily swept 
and washed. The teacher's desk should be movable, 
while the recitation settees and extra seats for visitors 
should be movable or folding, for the same reason. Spe- 
cial apparatus for preserving cleanliness will be noticed 
in subsequent chapters. 




Fig. 23.— THE NEW AMERICAN FOLDING SETTEE. 

Miscellaneous suggestions. — The methods of ventila- 
tion recommended require the stoves to be placed in the 
front part of the room, and near the corners. The front, 
sides, and back of the room should be occupied by black- 
boards or black-walls. There is little danger of too much 
blackboard space. If a platform is used it should not be 
more than six or eight inches in height. In school-houses 
with a single room, an unbroken level floor is much bet- 
ter than any platform, as it allows a greater freedom of 
movement, and a greater amount of air in the room. 

3 



CHAPTER IV. 



LIGHT. 




Fig. 24. 



Too little attention is given to admitting light into 
school-rooms. Windows arc placed to be out of the way 
of the furniture, and at the conventional 
distance apart ; but the thought that the 
admission of light exerts an important influ- 
ence upon the health and comfort of pupils 
seems rarely to occur to the builders of 
school-houses. 

In Germany, late scientific investigation 
has proved that a large proportion of the 
pupils of the intermediate and advanced 
schools have defective sight. In this coun- 
try the same fact has been noticed. While this may be 
attributed in part to improper postures and the small type 
of books, much the greater part is the direct result of 
mismanagement in the admission of light. 

Defects of present systems. — In cities 
it often happens that school-houses are so 
shut in by other buildings that it is impos- 
sible to obtain suflicient light. In country 
places there is a want of light through 
negligence. In rooms dimly lighted the 
eye is unnaturally strained in endeavoring 
Fig. 25. ^Q j,g^^| ^j. |.() observe minute objects. In- 

flammation of the eyes, or near-sightedness, is often the 
result. Another defect is a glare of light that strikes 




LIGHT. 35 

directly into the eyes. Still another is the arrangement 
which produces cross-lights. Curtains, shades, and blinds 
are often omitted, so that there is no way to control the 
light. Windows are sometimes improperly constructed 
by being placed too low, so that the light comes in nearly 
on a level with the pupil ; and sometimes they are too 
small. These defects can all be easily obviated. 

Much has been said and written about the superiority 
of the north light and the skylight, and school-houses have 
sometimes been built so as to make use of light from these 
directions exclusively. But the wisdom of this course is 
seriously called in quc^stion. The north light is the most 
unvarj^ing of all side lights, and the skylight is the strong- 
est of all applications of light to interiors ; but both ex- 
clude the direct rays of the sun. Sunshine is as necessary 
to health as air, and besides, it has a direct effect upon the 
nervous sj^stem, allaying irritability, and diffusing a happy 
spirit through the school, when its summer intensity is 
properly subdued by blinds or curtains. 

Proper arrangement of light. — Windows should 
never be so placed that pupils will be compelled to sit 
with their faces to them. It makes an 
unpleasant glare of light, and sometimes 
induces "squint eyes." Windows should 
not be placed on two sides of a room, at 
right angles with each other, producing 
"cross-lights." The effect upon the eye 
is exceedingly unpleasant. When the ^'^- ^^• 

muscles and lenses of the eye are adjusted for one light, 
they are out of focus for the other, and the eye becomes 
wearied and pained in its vain efforts to be in harmony 
with the two lights. 

Height of windows. — Windows should always extend 
upward as far as is consistent with the proportions of the 




36 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 




Fiff. 27. 



room, so that the light may come partially from above. 
They should be large enough in the aggregate to afford 
sufficient light in the darkest days, and then 
the light may be modified to suit the bright 
days. Light may with propriety be admitted 
in the rear of the room, but in case it is, it 
should be excluded from the sides, so as to 
avoid cross lights. 

In the plans contained in this work, the 
windows are placed in the two opposite sides 
of the room, with a blank wall in front and 
rear of the pupils. In. several of the series 
of elevations the windows are grouped together, so that a 
broad light, unbroken by shadows, fully illuminates the 
interior of the room. This arrangement is economical, 
affording the best possible admission of light, and at the 
same time gives opportunity for fine architectural effects. 
Blinds. — The windows should always be provided with 
blinds or curtains. Blinds are much to be preferred, and 
they should be placed inside. Outside blinds 
afford but little protection to the glass in any 
case, and none against malicious injury, while 
they are liable to be broken by the winds. 
Inside blinds are less liable to injury ; they 
are more easily adjusted, and the light is 
more easily regulated. Window sills are 
sometimes placed so high as to be a de- 
formity to the building. This may be in- 
tended to prevent pupils from looking out of the windows ; 
but the real effect is to court the very evil 
which is sought to be avoided. School- 
boys and girls are bound to surmount all 
;^ physical obstacles put in the way of their 
enjoyment of the largest liberty. The 





Fig. 29. 



LIGHT. 



37 



vagrant gaze and curiosity of pupils can be much, more 
easily restrained when the windows are placed in their 
proper places. 

In the construction of windows, large panes of glass 
should be used rather than small, as the light is more 
uniform and unbroken. Select a good quality of glass, 
free from waves and imperfections. 

The window is one of the most noticeable and effective 
of the architectural features of a building. It has about 
the same relation to the structure of which it forms a 
part, that the eye has to the human countenance. It can 
be made a perpetual deformity, or it can give beauty and 
expression to the whole building. Due attention should 
therefore be given to the form, the finish, and the situa- 
tion of the windows, to the end that their appearance 
may be a source of continuous pleasure, and a contribu- 
tion to the educational resources of the school. In the 
designs given in this work, the importance of windows in 
producing fine architectural effects has been fully con- 
sidered, and an effort has been made to give suitable and 
satisfactory forms, and, at the same time, those that are 
simple and inexpensive. 




Fig. 30. 




CHAPTER Y. 

HEATING AND VENTILATION. 

In devising methods for heating and ventilating rooms, 
three problems are presented, each of which must be 
satisfactorily solved before any system can 
be successful. These are economy in the use 
of fuel, equal distribution of heat through 
1: the room, and a plentiful supply of pure 
^ and properly tempered air. To solve these 
Fig. 31. problems many costly experiments have been 
made, and a great variety of ingenious apparatus has 
been invented. Many of the systems which have been 
put in use have their good points, though none of them 
have come fully up to the required conditions ; and nearly 
all of those are too costly for adoption in common schools. 
Before entering upon a detailed examination of the 
various methods of heating and ventilation now in use, 
we will discuss the necessity of ventilation, with the 
principles upon which it is founded ; and the nature of 
heat, with the laws of its transmission. 

Composition of air. — Pure air contains 79 parts nitro- 
gen, 21 parts oxygen, .0005 parts carbonic acid gas, and 
a variable quantity of water. The proportion of the con- 
stituent gases is very nearly uniform all over the world. 
Oxygen is the life-sustaining principle, while nitrogen 
seems to be merely a dilutent to render oxygen less 
active. Carbonic acid gas sustains vegetation, but de- 







Fi,/.:j. 




HEATING AND VENTILATION. 



39 



stroys animal life. The small amount found in the atmos- 
phere is not dangerous ; but when the proportion is sen- 
sibly increased, man and the higher 
animals are injuriously affected. 

Sources of carbonic acid. — Car- 
bonic acid gas is chiefly produced by 
combustion and by the breathing of 
animals. From these two sources thou- 
sands of tons of this deleterious gas are 
thrown out daily into the atmosphere 
in each of our great cities. But the 
currents which are constantly sweeping 
through this vast atmospheric ocean 
dissipate the poison as fast as it is 
generated, rendering it impossible for carbonic acid to 
accumulate to any considerable extent.'"' 

When air is confined in rooms where combustion and 
breathing is going on, carbonic acid gas rapidly accumu- 
lates, and means must be devised for carrying it off, or 
the air is soon rendered unfit to sustain animal life. 

Source of other impurities. — Besides the carbonic 
acid a large quantity of effete matter is thrown off 
through the skin by insensible perspiration. The aver- 
age amount of this decayed animal substance is about 
twenty ounces per day from each adult. When a num- 
ber of persons are confined within a room, this becomes a 
fruitful source of impurity in the air. If not removed this 




* In the city of Manchester, England, where more than two mil- 
lions of tons of coal are consumed annually, and where the smoke 
hangs like a dark cloud over the city and adjacent country, the air 
was analyzed twenty-eight different times, and the greatest amount 
of carbonic acid found was respectively .0015, .0013, and .0010; 
while the average was about .0007, or but little more than the aver- 
age of the entire atmosphere. 



40 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

animal excretion is taken into the 'system through the 
lungs, producing disease. It is absorbed into the walls 
and ceiling of the room, whence it is given back to the 
air, causing the offensive odors so prevalent in ill ven- 
tilated apartments, even when not occupied. 

Amount of air necessary. — It is stated upon the 
highest authority, that in breathing, an adult destroys the 
vitality of eight cubic feet of air every minute. In a 
school-room twenty by thirty, and ten feet high, forty 
pupils would render the six thousand cubic feet of air 
unfit to breathe in less than half an hour. The only rea- 
son why life is not destroyed in many of our school-houses 
is, that the buildings are so loosely constructed that there 
is constantly a kind of circulation of air. In a tight 
room, however, the air frequently becomes so poisonous 
that the pupils suffer both from a diminution of power and 
ability to work, and from positive disease. 

Ventilation indispensable. — Frequent changes of 
air cannot be neglected with impunity. It is estimated by 
those who have given the subject most 
attention, that more than one-half of the 
diseases that afflict the human race can be 
Fig. 33. Fig. 34. (j[j,gg^]y traced to the breathing of foul air. 

Proper attention to ventilation will go far to secure good 
health, while neglect will certainly produce disease to a 
greater or less extent. In the more modern treatment 
of disease, pure air is considered one of the most potent 
of the remedial agents ; and the ravages of contagious 
diseases have been arrested by supplying it in unlimited 
quantities.* 



* " One of the most striking illustrations of this, and perhaps one 
of the most wonderful cures of the cliolera on record, was that of the 
New York workhouse, on Blackwell's Island. It lasted only nine 



HEATING AND VENTILATION. 41 

Responsibility for neglect. — Iii the construction of 
every school-house where ventilation is neglected, some- 
body is responsible for the vile odors which pervade the 
room ; for the restlessness and nervous irritability of both 
teachers and pupils ; for the headaches, bronchitis, and 
weak lungs so prevalent ; for the sluggish vital action 
which robs the pupils of half their mental activity ; and 
for the weariness and exhaustion of all the members of the 
school during the latter half of each day. 

Before entering upon the subject of securing the sim- 
plest and most economic ventilation, it will be necessary 
to consider the nature of heat and its effect upon air. 

Radiation of heat. — By radiation heat passes out- 
ward from a heated body in all directions. The intensity 
of radiated heat is inversely as the square of the distance 
traversed. Radiated heat does not raise the temperature 
of the air through which it passes. This is shown by the 



days, but in that brief period one hundred and twenty out of eight 
hundred inmates died. I visited the building with Dr. Hamilton 
on the third day after its appearance, but the hospital then con- 
tained sixty or seventy patients, and some twenty-five or thirty had 
died within twenty-four hours. Dr. Hamilton attributed the rapid 
propagation and fatality of the disease, after it once had gained ad- 
mission, mainly to confinement and crowding. It was observed that 
the cholera was confined for several days among the women, who had 
the smallest apartments, and were most crowded in their cells, while 
the men were mostly employed out of doors. 

" The Doctor's prescription was very short and simple. A slight 
change was made in the diet, disinfectants Avere used, and at night 
a slight stimulant was given to each patient. But the great means 
that the Doctor relied upon for success was pure air all the time. 
The patients were kept out of doors from morning till night, and all 
tfte windows were kept open day and night. Although in the hot 
weather of summer, fire was made in the wards to insure a more 
perfect ventilation. In six days after the initiation of these simple 
hygienic measures the epidemic entirely disappeared." L. W. Leeds. 



42 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

fact that the upper atmosphere is much colder than the 
stratum of air iu immediate contact with the earth, whereas 
it would be warmer as we go toward the sun if the air 
was heated b}^ radiation. 

Conduction of heat. — By conduction heat is trans- 
mitted from a heated body to substances in immediate 
contact with it, which in turn transmit it to others, and 
so on, the intensity constantly diminishing as it passes 
away from the centre of action. Different bodies have 
the power of conducting heat in different degrees. Iron 
and the metals generall}^ are good conductors, and clay, 
water, wood, and air are poor conductors. A good con- 
ductor both receives and gives off heat much more rapidly 
than a poor conductor. In the construction of the outward 
walls of buildings, a poor conductor of heat should always 
be used, to avoid the otherwise inevitable loss of heat. 

Capacity of bodies to receive heat. — The capacity 
of bodies to receive heat greatly varies. To raise a cubic 
foot of water to a given temperature requires seventeen 
hundred times the amount of heat that it does to raise a 
cubic foot of air to the same temperature. The capacit}^ 
of air to receive heat is relatively small, and hence there 
is little loss of heat from a perfect sj'stem of ventilation. 

How AIR IS heated. — Air is heated by being brought into 
immediate contact with a heated surface. The air of a room 
is heated in part by contact with the heating apparatus, 
and in part by contact with the walls, floor, and ceiling of 
the room. The parts of the room and the furniture are 
heated by direct radiation from the heating apparatus. 

Effect of heat upon air. — Air, when heated, expands 
and becomes lighter. Owing to the derangement of equi- 
librium, the cooler and heavier air sinks and forces the 
warmer and lighter air upward. Whenever heat is 
more developed in one place than another, currents of air 



HEATING AND VENTILATION. 4d 

are always produced, and heat is distributed by this pro- 
cess, which is technically called convection. 

Movement op air in a room. — When confined in a 
room the cold air sinks to the bottom, and the warm air 
rises to the top. If the room is perfectly tight, and a 
small opening is made in either the top or bottom, no 
change takes place within the room, as there is no force 
to establish motion. If an opening is made in both the 
top and the bottom, the cold air flows in below and the 
warm air escapes above. If two openings are made 
above, or a single flue is divided into two parts, there will 
be an ascending current in one and a descending current 
in the other. 

Impurities in a room. — Carbonic acid gas is heavier 
than air, and when generated in considerable quantities 
at the same temperature of the air, it first sinks downward, 
but in a short time it becomes diffused through the air. 

In a room at the temperature of 70° the carbonic acid 
of the breath at the temperature of about 90° rises, but, 
speedily giving off its extra heat, sinks again and accu- 
mulates at the floor. The carbonic acid generated by the 
burning of lamps, first rises to the top of the room, but 
the heat which carries it upward soon dissipates, and it 
then sinks downward. When air colder than the tem- 
perature of the room is admitted, it sinks to the floor, and 
the vitiated air lies in the stratum immediately above. 
But the tendency of gases is toward diffusion, and we may 
safely state that in rooms occupied by a large number of 
persons, the vitiated air will either be found well distrib- 
uted through the room, or accumulated at the bottom. 
With these facts and principles before us, we are prepared 
to examine the different methods of heating and ventila- 
tion, and determine how far each goes to the solution of 
the problems which we named. 



44 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



Fire-places. — With the open fire-place a current of 
air is always setting in toward the fire, making the ven- 
tilation very nearly perfect. The heat, however, is trans- 
mitted by radiation, and hence is unevenly distributed, 
and the current of hot air which constantly ascends 
through the chimney causes a great waste of heat. 

Stoves. — By the use of stoves we have a greater econ- 
omy of fuel, but the heat is still radiated, and consequently 
unevenly distributed, and there is no ven- 
tilation connected with the process of heat- 
ing, except the very small current escaping 
through the draft of the stove. 

When stoves are used ventilation is 
sought to be accomplished in a great variety 
of independent methods. 

Windows. — When windows are opened 
at the top for the admission of air, a cold 
current immediately flows in, which settles 
to the bottom of the room, where it serves 
to keep the feet of the pupils uncomfortably 
cold. On Its way it strikes the unprotected necks and 
shoulders of the pupils who are seated near, causing colds 
in the head, rheumatic pains, and other 
forms of disease. The danger of sitting in 
draughts is abundantly set forth in the 
most elementary treatises upon hygienic 
science, and yet, to this day, people are 
found who contend that ventilation is suf- 
ficientlj' secured by the abominable practice of opening 
windows from the top.* 




Fig. 35. 




Fig. 36. 



* Windows may be opened from the top just sufficient to allow the 
escape of hot air, but not to admit cold air, while pupils are exposed 
to the draught. "While the children are seated care should be taken 




HEATING AND VENTILATION. 45 

Opening in the ceiling. — A second method of inde- 
pendent ventilation is by having an opening in the ceiling. 
When the opening is merely into a room 
above, no currents are created and no ven- 
tilation is induced. But when the outlet is 
through a flue directly into the outer air, the " Fig. 37. 
hot air at the top of the room is drawn off, and the equally 
foul air below remains. This method changes the air but 
little, and causes great waste of heat. 

Double openings in the ceiling. — A more modern 
method of ventilation is to provide two separate flues 
from the ceiling, or to divide a single ventilating chimney 
into several parts. It is found that generally, while there 
is an ascending current through the one, there will be a de- 
scending current through another, causing a change of air 
throughout the room. This will always be the case when 
the room is perfectly tight, but when a door or window is 
opened the descending current at once ceases, while the 
hot air continues to escape. There is the same objection 
to this method of admitting cold air as to windows opened 
at the top, exposing pupils to draughts and to cold feet, 
and at the same time there is a great loss of heat. 

These plans for the change of air in a room are all faulty, 
and so far stoves and good ventilation seem inconsistent 
with each other. 

Hot-air furnaces. — The most philosophic apparatus 
for heating which has yet been invented is probably the 
hot-air furnace. By its use the air is properly tempered 
before being admitted to the room, and cold draughts are 
rendered impossible. If adjusted so as to secure proper 



to open the windows opposite the wind only. The windows may 
be opened' at both the top and bottom at recess, and while the pupils 
are engaged in physical exercise. 



46 OUIl SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

distribution uihI an economic method of ventilation, it 
conies nearer to solving onr three j)rol)lcnis than any 
oilier. 

Mistakes tn ahhangement. — In the construction of 
(lie hot-air a})})aratus many amusing mistakes have been 
uKuh'. Tiie cold-air box sometimes has been entirel}'' 
oini(((Ml, uiid registers for tlie admission of liot air have 
been placed in the top of the room, or half-way down, 
instead of at the bottom, where they belong. The venti- 
lating flues have sometimes been entirely omitted, and 
have sometimes been placed at the top of the room, when 
they served the })urpose only of carrying oil" the hot 
air, and so wasting heat. The ventilating flue, when in 
ils proper position at the bottom of the room, has often 
been placed so near the hot-air register that a limited 
{'irculadoii only was produced, and tlie heat was far IVom 
being eveiil}' distributed. 

The niwr aiuianoement. — From these mistakes, and 
a very long series of experiments, a most excellent ar- 
rangement has been devised. The hot air is admitted 
at the bottom of the room, and the ventilating registers 
are jdaccd at the farthest distance from the hot-air regis- 
ters also, and at the bottom of the room. 

The (lues from the ventilating registers are made to con- 
ne(.'t wilh (he draught of the furnace, and the circulation 
is thus made complete. Hot-air furnaces, however, arc 
too costl\' for use in common schools, and it remains for 
ns to devise a system which shall be inexpensive and at 
the same time shall have all the excellences of the costly 
a],)paratus described. The details of the })lan are as 
follows : 

Chimneys and elites. — Tn rooms of considerable size, 
chinHie3'S should be built in each of the front .corners, 
commencinii; at the foundation. In smaller rooms a 



Fiij, -y>. 





HEATING AND VENTILATION. 49 

single chimney is sufficient. They are placed in front 
to avoid the long stove-pipe which otherwise would be 
necessary. These long pipes ,are disagreeable from the 
radiation of heat downward upon the heads of the pupils, 
and from their tendency to smoke, drij), and 
get out of place. Each chimney should have 
two flues, separated by the thinnest possible 
partition : one for smoke and the other for 
ventilation. The results sought by this ar- 
rangement can be effectively attained by hav- 
ing a pipe for the smoke carried up through 
the centre of the flue which is used for ven- 
tilation. From the ventilating flue of the chim- fsj^'-ss- 
neys air-tight horizontal tubes should be laid under the 
floor to the opposite sides of the room, terminating in 
registers opening through the floor or base-board. 

Stoves. — The stoves used may be ordinary box stoves 
for wood, or upright cylinders for coal. When coal is 
used, the self-feeding stove should be obtained if possible. 
The stoves should be placed in the corners of the room, 
where they are most out of the way, and each one should 
be inclosed by a double case or jacket of sheet-iron, or 
some other material of like character, for the double pur- 
pose of preventing the intense primary radiation, and for 
providing space for the heating of air. A cold-air tube 
extending from the side of the building should be laid 
under the floor, and open directly beneath the stove.* 



* A convenient and economic method of admitting cold air would 
be to place a partition or floor in the smoke flue of the cliimney a 
little below the opening for the stove-pipe; make an opening from 
the outside into the flue below the partition ; and to connect the flue 
below with the cold-air tube opening beneath the stove. This 
arrangement will secure a constant supply of air taken so far above 

4 



50 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

Operation of the stove and chimney. — When a fire 
is kindled in the stove, the heat escaping from the chim- 
ney raises the temperature in the adjacent 
wst ventilating flue and establishes a current 
ly u})ward. This causes a draught which acts 

'^W* "pon the air of the room through the regis- 
*^ ters at the extremity of the ventilating tube, 
^ ■' })umping the cold air from the bottom of the 

Fig. 39. j.Qo,^^ 

Operation of the hot air. — The fire in the stove 
heats the stratum of air which surrounds it, and a hot 
current is produced, which enters the room next the floor, 
from between the outer and inner coats of the jacket, 
serving to keep the floor warm in the immediate vicinity, 
and alfording a convenient place for warming feet. The 
hot air then rises to the top of the room, where it accumu- 
lates, and pressing downward upon the cold air, forces it 
out through the registers, thus directly aiding the draught 
of the ventilating flues. 

Perfections of action. — The pure air, heated and 
properly tempered, soon has entire possession of the 
room. The ventilating registers attract it to the farthest 
part of the room, and the heat is evenly distributed. No 
warm air can escape from the room while there is any 
cold air in it, and so, no heat is wasted. The currents 
through the room are continuous, and the foul air is car- 
ried off as i\ist as generated. The whole system is brought 
directly under control by having adjustable registers at 
the opening into the ventilating tubes and in the cold-air 
tubes, and by proper dampers in the stove. 

Moisture. — If the air is found too dry when it is 



the svirfiicc ;is to be free from the impiu'ities which often emanate 
from tlie ground. 



HEATING AND VENTILATION". 51 

admitted into the room, it may be properly tempered 
with moisture by having a basin of water placed beneath 
the jacket in such a manner that it can be filled from the 
outside. GJ-reat care should be taken that both the basin 
and the water are always clean. 

Conclusion. — It is believed that the sj^stem of heating 
and ventilation here described fully meets the require- 
ments demanded in the outset. The apparatus costs but 
little more than that in ordinary use. The extra cost of the 
jacket for the stove, and of the ventilating tubes, but a 
few dollars at the most, will be more than saved in fuel in 
a single winter. The use of fuel is more economic than 
that of the most approved air-tight stoves ; for the neces- 
sity of opening doors and windows is entirely obviated. 
The distribution of heat is as perfect as that of the most 
approved hot-air furnaces, and the ventilation as thorough 
as with the old-fashioned fire-places. It has all the excel- 
lences of these several systems without their defects. 





Fio-. 40. Fig. 41 



CHAPTER VT. 

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION". 

The terms Building and Architecture, though often 
used synonymously, are in meaning essentially different. 

Building has reference to utilit}-^, 
while architecture aims to produce 
beauty. The object of building is 
accomplished when the ends of use- 
fulness are attained ; but archi- 
tecture is not satisfied until it 
has created in the mind emotions 
of pleasure. The construction of 
walls, roofs, windows, and all the 
necessary parts of an edifice is the 
p business of a builder ; the office of 
the architect is to dispose and 
arrange these parts in the most 
^'^' '^'^- liarmonious and attractive manner. 

The two most obvious uses in all buildings designed for 
the occupation of man are shelter and warmth. These 
conditions are found, by savage or barbarous nations, in 
natural or artificial caverns, in hollows of trees, and in 
rude huts of sticks and mud. At the ver}- dawn of civil- 
ization the art of building began to receive attention. 
Rude at first, it gradually improved as the wants of man 
were developed, until it has reached a state of compara- 
tive perfection. In every stage of its progress, however, 




GENERAL CONSTRUCTION. 



53 



shelter and warmtti have been the principal ends to be 
attained. We might class with these another scarcely less 
important, viz., durability. Hence, the strength and sta- 
bility of walls, the tightness of roof, and outside covering, 
are matters of prime interest, and if neglected in the out- 
set, no subsequent expenditure of skill or labor can pro- 
vide a remedy. 

Materials. — The materials used should be excellent in 
quality. It is false economy that consents, under any 
circumstances, to use inferior materials. 
There may be, in the beginning, a small 
saving of cost, but the result will be pre- 
mature decay, and consequent expense for 
rebuilding. The greatest care should be 
taken to procure bricks properly burned, 
straight-grained timber for frames, sound 
roof-boards and siding, floor-boards with- 
out knots, shingles of the first quality, and 
fresh -burned lime. These precautions can- 
not be too strongly urged. A single stick 
of bad timber will sometimes ruin a whole 
building ; and many a brick wall has fallen 
in consequence of using lime which has been too long 
exposed. The money annually expended in repairs occa- 
sioned by the use of poor materials is more than triple 
that increase of the first cost, which would have entirely 
obviated the difficulty. Every part of the materials 
should be carefully examined by competent persons, and 
all, except the very best, should be rejected. 

Workmanship. — The work should be well done. Job- 
work, as it is usually termed (often another name for work 
miserably performed), cannot be too earnestly deprecated. 
With the best of materials a careless or unskillful work- 
man will construct a worthless building. Lumber of the 




Fig. 43. 



54 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 




Fig. 44. 



best kind may be worse than wasted by a slovenly manner 
of framing and adjusting it. Shingles poorly laid will be 

followed by leaks, which must seri- 
ously damage the plaster and inside 
finish. Foundations insecurely built 
will rack and destroy every other 
part of the building. Window- 
frames imperfectly constructed, sid- 
ing and floors loosely laid, and doors 
with yawning joints, all allow the 
entrance of cold and storms, and thus 
become the source of unnecessary 
expenditure for fuel, as well as of 
serious injury to the entire structure. 
Lath and plaster badly put on last 
but a short time, and constant patch- 
ing presents an unsightly appear- 
ance, besides being a cause of annoyance and expense. 
Surely no further specification is needed to satisfy the 
most reluctant, that the truest economy demands such an 
expenditure for labor in the outset as shall secure the best 

possible construction. Faults 
in workmanship should be care- 
fully provided against. Every 
part of the work should be sub- 
jected to the closest scrutiny. 

But workmen are not alone 
to blame for improper construc- 
tion. It is quite as often the 
result of false economy or par- 
simony on the part of owners. 
The estimates of mechanics are 
often cut down without an intelligent reason, upon the as- 
sumption that they are not made in good faith. In cons.'- 




Fig. 45. 



GENERAL CONSTRUCTION. 



55 



quence, the workmen, who perhaps are forced by circum- 
stances to undertake the job, are obliged to slight their 
work to save themselves from loss. The injury resulting 
does not end with the work imperfectly done. It impairs 
that confidence in man, which is the basis of all true 
humanity, and leads to a regular system of deception on 
the part of employer and workmen. Let those having 
charge of the construction of buildings, therefore, beware 
of offering a premium for j^oor work by paying less than 
good work is worth. Let them remember that "the 
laborer is worthy of his hire," and that to extort labor for 
less than its value is only a safe and legal species of rob- 
bery. 

Architectural appearance. — The style of architec- 
ture in school-houses should receive its share of attention. 
Some general principles should be fixed as a 
guide for those intending to build. The old 
style, or, rather, no style, we put out of the 
question, as its whole object was to provide 
the cheapest possible shelter, without refer- 
ence to true utility, and none whatever to 
beauty. What shall take its place is a ques- 
tion of present and pressing interest. Many 
styles have been proposed, but none as yet 
have been generally adopted. The two which 
have attracted the most attention, and which 
have most frequently been described in works 
upon the apparatus of education, are the Greek and the 
Grothic. These styles are now frequently found in places 
where considerable attention has been paid to improve- 
ment in schools, and they have been strongly recom- 
mended by those who have written upon the subject. 
Some inquiry into their respective claims may not be out 
of place here. 




Fig 40 



56 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 




FiiT. 47. 



Greek architecture. — When we speak of scliool-houses 
ill the Greek style, we mean those in whose construction 
some features of the Greek architec- 
ture have been displayed. For ex- 
ample, we often see the Greek cornice 
extending around the building, with 
the tympanums upon the gables ; pi- 
lasters, surmounted with capitals in 
imitation of the Greek columns ; the 
Greek pitch to the roof; and, in 
many cases, the Greek portico. All 
these forms are beautiful in them- 
selves, and, in their original combi- 
nations, unrivalled in architecture. 
But their adaptation to the purposes and uses of a school 
edifice may well be questioned. 

The Greek architecture was developed chiefl}^ in the 
construction of temples for religious worship, which were 
not designed so much for use as to please the eye. Only 
the outer and inner colonnade were covered ; the god to 
whom the temple was dedicated was supposed not to need 
a roof, and hence none was provided. All the marvellous 
skill and energy of this remarkable people were emploj^ed 
in developing this style of architecture, and the result 
was very nearly perfection. The impression which such 
a building makes upon the mind is that of sublimity. But 
an indispensable element in this sublimity is magnitude. 
A diminutive structure can never call up the emotion of 
the sublime ; and hence, when the Greek forms are used 
in the construction of small buildings, the old maxim is 
illustrated, that " there is but one step from the sublime 
to the ridiculous." 

Not only were Greek temples roofless, but they were 
usually windowless ; and when we reduce them to modern. 



GENERAL CONSTRUCTION. 



57 




every-clay uses, wc arc obliged to depart from the model 

in these two important particulars. Originally, genius, 

labor, and treasure were all expended upon 

the colonnade ; but little attention was given 

to the interior, and therefore it has been found 

impossible to adapt forms so developed to 

buildings in which the interior is the most 

important part. When the Greek temple is 

copied entire, it is found that the immense 

colonnade occupies a large share of the most 

valuable space, and hence the form is the very 

worst that can be devised for use. If only 

certain features are engrafted upon other forms, 

the results are defective and incongruous. ri-.48. 

Another consequence is a great expenditure of labor 
and material, without any adequate return, either in 
convenience or beauty. For example, if the Greek 
cornice and tympanum are used with the ordinary pitch 
of roof, the laws of proportion are palpably violated ; but 
if the original pitch is preserved, and shingles are used, 
the roof is too flat and soon decays. The horizontal 
cornice across the gable, which forms the base of the 
tympanum, is entirely useless, as are the capitals upon 
the pilasters. When any of these ornaments are used in 
the construction of ordinary school-houses, they always 
wear a pretentious appearance. We are inclined to adopt,, 
as an incontrovertible principle, that Greek forms should 
never be used except in large and costly buildings. 
Their introduction into school-house architecture was 
unfortunate, and we trust the time is not far distant when 
they will fall into disuse. 

Gothic architecture. — The full development of the 
Gothic architecture is found only in temples, where mag- 
nitude is an indispensable element. In the construction 



58 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 




Fig. 49. 



of these buildings the interior was considered of the most 
importance, and everything was subordinated to the per- 
fection of its finish. The steep roof was 
thrown up to give opportunity for the high 
pointed arches inside, which, in the dim, 
shadowy light, excited emotions of solem- 
nity and awe. When we interpose ceil- 
ings in Gothic structures we depart from 
the original idea, and the high meaning 
of the style is lost. 

In modern times a great variety of 
small Grothic buildings have been con- 
structed, peculiarh^ beautiful to the eye ;. 
but when the style has been Gothic 
throughout, the beautiful effect has been 
produced at the expense of economy and 
convenience. In the details of building, 
however, Gothic forms can be often used to advantage in 
combination with other architectural arrangements. 

Modern architecture. — The best buildings constructed 
for modern use have usually a composite style. Beautiful 

forms are adapted from an 3" of the 
classic styles, and all the combina- 
tions are arranged to meet the re- 
quirements of convenience. The 
architect can no longer follow the 
lead of sentiment and fanc}^ and 
create structures which excite as- 
tonishment and wonder, but he is 
bound b}^ the laws of utility, and 
his work of fanc}' must be always 
Fig. 50. subordinated to the useful. 

The designs in this book have been constructed with 
this idea of utility constantly in mind. The comfort and 




GENERAL CONSTRUCTION. 



59 



convenience of the pupils have first been secured, and 
even the claims of so-called economy have been subordi- 
nated to these. 

The next leading idea has been to secure the finest ap- 
pearance at the least cost. With each of the plans a pro- 
gressive series of designs have been given, commencing 
with the plainest and cheapest, and successively becoming 
more elaborate and costly. 

No features have been added for the purpose of mere 
ornamentation, but beautiful appearance has been secured 
by the shaping and harmonious disposition of the neces- 
sary parts. The shape, size, and position of doors, 
windows, chimneys, gables, and cupolas have all been 
made to conduce to this end, and when one of the designs 
shall be selected, it should be carried out in the details, 
or otherwise the builders may be greatly disappointed. 
In the descriptions it will be noticed that certain features 
of different designs are interchangeable, but great care 
should be exercised in making changes, so that general 
effect shall not be incongruous. 





Fi2. 51. 



Fi-. 52. 



CHAPTER VII. 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 




The plans and elevations in this ^yo^k have been made 
with special reference to the present wants of district 
schools in the conntry and of primary 
schools in cities aiid villages. In 
size iliey are designed to accommo- 
date all grades of schools consisting 
of from twenty-five to three hundred 
pupils. With each plan several eleva- 
tions have been given, to allow selec- 
tion in regard to taste and to conform 
to different ideas of economy. 

In each series the clieaper eleva- 
tions are as plain and economical in 
structure as is compatible with the health, comfort, and 
convenience of the pupils. Poorer and cheaper structures 
may be built, but they can never fully answer the pur- 
poses for which they are designed, and the efficicnc}' of 
the school must sulTer in consequence. In the long run it 
will be found that parsimony is not economy. 

From the cheapest possible form the series rise in regu- 
lar gradation to the more complex and ornamental. Beau- 
tii'ul forms in themselves are educational inlluences, and 
the rudeness of pupils may, in a great measure, be modi- 
fied and subdued by a due attention to beauty in the 
school-house and furniture. Wherever the circumstances 



Fig. 53. 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



61 



of the district will warrant the outlay, some of the more 
elaborate elevations should be chosen, and it will be found 
that the highest interests of the school will be served in 
the direct ratio to the expense incurred. 

In all the designs sufficient size has been given to the 
rooms to afford an adequate supply of air, and to allow 
sufficient freedom of movement on the part of 
pupils. The shape of the rooms has been made 
to conform to the principles laid down in the 
chapter upon Internal Arrangement. The light- 
ing and heating is according to the most advanced 
scientific knowledge upon these subjects. 

In regard to materials of construction, styles adapted to 
wood, brick, and stone, have been given. Most of the 
elevations may be constructed with either of these mate- 
rials. Brick or stone is to be preferred to wood on many 
accounts. Houses of these materials, properly constructed, 
are warmer in winter, cooler in summer, and more dura- 
ble than those built of wood. 





Fig. 55. 



62 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



DESIGN I. 




^■^-J 



In many i)arts of New England, and several other of 
the northern States, a popular form 
of a school-house is that of a build- 
ing with a side to the street, with a 
smaller building used for a wood- 
house, extending along in a line 
with the main building directly upon 
the street. Usually, the entrance 
is through an open doorway into 
the wood-house, and thence directly 
into the school-room. 
Tiic advantages of the plan are cheapness of structure 
and convenience of access to the fuel. In regions where 
the storms of winter are severe and the snows are deep, 
the situation of the building directly upon the road-side, 
with but a single entrance to both the wood-house and the 
school-room, favors economy in the removing of snow and 
in the construction of paths. The wood-house also affords 
protection to the entrance of the school-room, and may be 
considered as an excuse for an entr3^-wa3^ 

But this arrangement is faulty in several particulars. 
The long, continuous roofs, or one gable falling beneath 
another, gives to it an unsightly appearance, and there is 
no visible outside door to the main building. There is but 
one entrance for the two sexes, and no lobby for deposit- 
ing hats and outer garments. In the elevations given, an 
effort has been made to preserve the main features of this 
plan, but to so modify it in details as to correct some of 
the most obvious faults. At best, however, this can only 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



63 




06 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



67 



be done partially, as some of the most serious faults are 
essential parts of the plan. 

In the plan given, Fig. 57, the wood-house is entirely- 
inclosed, and a front door is constructed for a main en- 
trance into the school-room, and a side door for the ad- 
mission of wood. A partition has been made to extend 




D^' 



m 
m 



^laiB 



msre 



simm^ 



Fig. 57. 



through the wood-house, cutting off the front part for an 
entry-way and a lobby for hats and cloaks. In the school- 
room a space has been left for a fire-place ; but in case a 
stove is used it should be placed in the front corner far- 
thest from the door. The wall in front, then, may be 
used as a blackboard. 

The size of this building is immaterial, as the same 
general plan may be made to accommodate from twenty to 
one hundred pupils. For all but very small districts, the 
houses having two entrances are much to be preferred. 

Elevation No. 1. — This is a very plain elevation of a 
wood structure furnished with clap-boards. The arrange- 
ment of the wood-house, narrower and lower than the 
main building, and the construction of the doors, give to 
the building an idea of proportion, and make it a great 
improvement upon the open wood-house style. 



68 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

The windows in the main building are grouped together 
for the triple purpose of economy in construction, finer 
architectural appearance, and a better disposition of light. 
The separate windows, however, can be used if preferred. 
The large ornamental chimney is a feature which gives 
character to the whole structure, and which ought not to 
be omitted. Its large size is for the purpose of affording 
room for both smoke and ventilating flues. 

Elevation No. 2. — The principal difference between 
this and No. 1 is that the roof of the main building is 
turned in the opposite direction, and is at right angles 
with the roof of the wood-house instead of parallel with 
it. Architecturally, this is a better arrangement, as one 
gable ought not to come directly beneath another. In 
the picture this building is finished with battens ; but clap- 
boards may be used if preferred. In case battens are 
used, the boards should all be narrow, not exceeding 
eight inches in width, and the battens only wide enough to 
cover the joint, and they should always be nailed through 
the middle. 

Elevation No. 3. — In essential features it is like No. 2. 
The roof. is of the same general description, but less steep. 
The cornices of the two buildings are upon the same level, 
and an ornamental cornice extends across the gables. 
The windows are represented as separate, but they may 
be grouped as in 1 and 2. The finish of this design is in 
brick, though either brick or wood may be used for either 
of the elevations. This design is specially adapted to a 
level country, where if is in harmony with the scenery. 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



69 




OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



73 



DESIGN II. 

A small school may be well accommodated by a plan like 
that represented in Fig. 59. It consists of a school-room 
with a single porch in front, and a wood- 
house in the rear. The room represented 
contains seats for twenty-four pupils, but 
by increasing the length three feet there 
will be room for one more row of scats, and 
for thirty pupils, and by increasing its 
width four feet, it will contain still another 
row of desks, and seats for forty pupils. 

The porch is a single room, but of suffi- 
cient size for a lobby for clothes. The 
stove is to be placed in one of the nitches 
in front, while the other nitch may be used 
for a closet. The ventilators in this, as in all the designs, 
are placed in the rear of the room, but each one is con- 
nected with the chimney by a tube under the floor. 





Fi''. 59. 



The wood-house in the rear serves the double purpose 
of back hall or entry-way and a place of storage for fuel. 



74 Olfll S(!II()()l,-IIOtJHHS. 

'riic doors upon llic sides should open i'('S]KM'(iv(dy inio 
I lie hoys' and <j,ii-ls' plii.y -grounds. 'V\n) IVoni piirl, of (lio 
wood-house slioidd Ik; pn)vid<Ml vvilli ;i pliiUoi'iii ii|)oii ii 
h'V(d vvilli tin; school-house; lloor, ;it Icnsi lour liicL wide. 

This ,L;(Mi(>r:i,I phui is superioi* to Design I., ))y li;i,vin^" 
buck MS well ;is IVoul, cidniiiccs, s<> llia,l. access may l)e liad 
lo (he play-,i!;i-ounds and oul-l)uildiiiji;H without disturbance 
lo classes, or lo the t^'ciuM'aJ ordei" of (Ik; scliool-i'ooni. 
The nioN'eiiienIs of pupils arc; not so conspicuous us th(;y 
woidd be if, in llieii' eidra,iic(; and exit, they wei'o always 
obli^'cd to pass lliroui;li I he IVont door. 

I^!1lkva'I'I<>n No. 1. This (devation is a. sinipl(Min(l inex- 
pensive building', with wid(; projeclinii; eaves tluit «2;ive to 
it an appearance (tf comlort and solidil}'. ^Plu; porcli is 
linished wilh a, tent-roof, lo obviate I he necessity of a. <j;a,blo 
under a. ,!i;able. It is liL;hlc(l by a, small window upon Ihc 
side, as tlu; hei<2;ht of the; roof would hardly admit of a 
head-window over tlie door. The windows are ;;roupe(l 
lo<;'(dher, and the whole design produces a ver}^ pleasing 
ellect. 

If a lai'.t;"er house is l)uilt upon (his plan, the outside 
appearance; m:iy remain the same by simj)ly increasinj;" all 
tlu* parts in proportion. If thre^e feet be added to the 
lenmtli no othei' chaiiire ihmmI be mad(\ but if llu* addition 
is made to the width the poi-ch should be enlarged in 
|)ro|)oi-|ion. 

Mri'iv A'i'ioN No. 'J. In this elevation the r(»of of the 
m:iin building is placed a,t right angles with the roof of 
the porch and wood-hous(\ giving a line architectural 
elVecl lo the grou|). The corni(;es of the three pa.rts aro 
upon the; saiiu' le'ved, anel an e)rnanKMital ee)rnice extends 
ae're)ss the; gable'. This feature may be e)mitteel, anel llio 
rools mav be' ai-raiige<l in the' same' manner as the)se in 
Mlevalie)n No. 'J of De'sign I. In case' the galde' e'ornice is 



DESIGNS AND KLEVATIONS. 



75 




OUll SCHOOL-HOUSES. 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 79 

omitted the cornices of the porch and wood-house should 
drop below that of the main building. The porch is 
lighted by a head-light above the door. The materials 
of this building may be either brick or wood. 

Elevation No. 3. — This elevation is more ornamental. 
The corners of the gable are cut off, and a small gable is 
erected over each of the large windows in the sides. The 
porch is finished with a common gable. The ornamental 
filigree work of the gables may be omitted, and the cornice 
made wide and j)lain, like that of Elevation No. 1. The 
only extra cost of this elevation is raising the gables over 
the windows, and in cutting down the corners of the roof, 
the whole of which ought not to exceed a few dollars. 
This elevation is represented as finished with battens, but 
clap-boards may be used, or the house may be built of 
brick. The superior appearance of this design will more 
than warrant the additional expense. 

Elevation No. 4. — In villages and country places 
near cities, where the dwellings are of fine architectural 
appearance, the school-house should be in harmony with 
the surroundings, and there is a demand for ornamental 
designs. Elevation No. 4 has been prepared to meet 
this demand when a small school-house is wanted. The 
general features are Gothic, but the whole is chaste and 
neat and not excessively expensive. The steep gables 
all terminate in minarets or pinnacles. An ornamental 
bell-tower surmounts the front. The porch has an orna- 
mental tent-roof, sloping down from the front gable. 
Gables are erected above the side windows, and a beauti- 
ful ornamental chimney extends upward from one side of 
the porch. The material may be brick or stone, the finish 
of the gables being a stone coping instead of a cornice. 
This coping may be made of wood with a covering of tin. 
This elevation might also be used as a session-room for a 



t 
« 



80 oint, SdiiooL-iiousKH. 

cliurcli, iiiid loi* ;i variety of oilier public pm'poscs. The 
roof .should b(^ <'()V(M'(m1 vviili shilc. 

ill ,s(tiii(' |);m'I,s oI" IIi(> coimd'y (he siiiiill iiiiiiilxM" ol" pupils 
ill I he (lislrici is <^iwv\\ ;is ;im excuse foi- a, iiiiseniblo sehool- 
lioiisc. TIk^ liict of a limited iiuiiiher of pupils uuiy be ti 
suHicieiil I'easoii lor lli(» coiisl ruction of a small school- 
house, hill, not lor a. poor one. The educalioiKil wants of 
a small dislrici and ora.sina.il niimher of childfcn a.r(\just 
as pr(>ssin.i!; as tlioujj;h the territory and th(> numlier wei'e 
indelinilxdy inci-eased, and a. nej^leet to sii[)ply them is just 
as d(>li-iiiienlal in the one ease as in the other. 11" this 
excuse were a, 5:;ood one tli(> Slate would be Jnslilied in 
withholdinji; the public runds on the same ^I'ound. 

r>iit., a.,<;"a,in, it, is a.ri;iied that, the smallei" tlistricts a,ro 
ol'len too poor to er(>ct a, respectable appea.rini;' and com- 
I'orlable school-house. It. may be that, many ol' the dis- 
ti'icls are veiT poor, and in that case they are lar too 
poor to siibiect their children to exposures and conse(|U(Mit 
disease*, and so a, i;'0()d school-house becomes indispensable. 
l<]a,ch district that partakes of the public money of the 
Slal(» is morally bound to pro\ide all the appliances 
nec('ssa.ry for lli(> proper expiMidilni'c of the money so 
obtained; and the poorer the district the t;rea.ter is the 
necessity for all possible means lor moral and physical 
advancement. 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



81 







84 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



85 



DESIGN III. 




Fis;. 60. 



Country schools generally need accommodations for 
from forty to eighty pupils. In the plan given for Design 
III., sixty seats are provided. The 
room is thirty-four by thirty-eight 
feet, and by slight changes in size 
it may be contracted or expanded. 
By adding three feet to the length 
space is given for ten additional 
seats, and by making the building 
four feet narrower there would still 
be sufficient room for four rows of 
desks, accommodating forty-eight 
pupils. 

In this design two entrances are provided in front, each 
of which opens into a room which is at once an entry-way 
and a lobby for clothes. The space between the two 
entry-ways can be used for recitations, and a room may 
be finished in the basement, or added to the rear, for the 
storing of fuel. 

This design is well adapted to districts in wliich the 
attendance is large during one portion of tlie year and 
small at other times. The recitation-room gives an 
opportunity for the employment of an extra teacher when 
the school is crowded. The front and back walls of the 
school-room, between the two doors, should be occupied by 
a blackboard. The stoves are placed in the front corners 
of the I'oom and the ventilators in the opposite corners, in 
accordance with the principles laid down in the chapter 
upon heat and ventilation. This room is supplied with 



8G 



OUll SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



two back entrances opening respectively into the boys' 
and girls' play-grounds. 

Elevation No. 1. — This elevation represents a plain 

The roof has 



but neat and substantial building of wood 



^/<^>.^ll«^y^fiE|^^^_ U=C ^i==l^^!A 




Flsr. 61. 



the plain, wide, projecting cornice and eaves which protect 
the walls of the building, and at the same time give it an 
ai)})earance of comfort and solidity. The linish may be 
of battens, as in the engraving, or it may be of clap-boards, 
or substantially the same building may be made of brick. 
This elevation is represented as standing on a hill-side 
which slopes downward and backward from the house. 
In situations of this kind the back entrance may be omit- 
ted, and the basement may be fitted up for a wood- 
room. The nearly s(iuare form of this elevation, the 
perfectly plain (inish, the arrangement of everything 
beneath a single roof, and the entire lack of ornamenta- 
tion, render this one of the cheapest buildings which can 
be erected. If anything cheaper is attempted it will be 
l)y the use of poor materials, by scrimping just propor- 
tions, or by diminishing the size, so as to deprive pupils of 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



87 




90 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 91 

tlieir due proportion of pure air, and of their freedom of 
movement. In either case the interests of the school will 
suffer and present saving will be effected at a fearful 
future cost to the children. 

Elevation No. 2. — This is another very plain and 
cheap structure of wood, finished with clap-boards. The 
bell-tower gives dignity to the building, but it may be 
omitted. The roof is the ordinary pitch and may be 
covered with slate or shingles. 

In finishing wood structures in this manner, the clap- 
boards should be laid with but little exposure to the 
weather. This arrangement gives tighter joints, and 
makes the building much warmer. In some sections 
buildings designed for habitation are covered with a coat- 
ing of tarred paper before the siding is laid, and this 
renders them almost air-tiorht. This coverino; is recom- 
mended for school-houses built in our northern climate, 
and in exposed locations. By its use the school-room 
will be made more comfortable, and a large saving in 
fuel will be made. 

Elevation No. 3. — This building, in form, is but a slight 
variation from No. 2. The corners of the gables have been 
cut off" and the form of the cupola changed ; but otherwise 
it is substantially the same. The finish in the engraving is 
made to represent brick, but wood or stone may be used. 

In the erection of brick walls care must be tak(m to 
have the walls hollow, or formed so that a space of air 
may be confined Avithin them, otherwise the walls will 
be damp and the room unhealthy. The precaution should 
also be taken to have the foundation laid in hydraulic 
cement as high as the water-table to prevent the moisture 
of the ground from permeating the entire walls of the 
building. The effect of tlie moisture is not onh' deleteri- 
ous to health, but, combined with the action of frost, it 



92 Ol'll SCUIOOL-IIOlIMKrt. 

Ii;is ;i, l(Mi(l(nu;y to cmck ami desLroy Uic walls of (lie 
bnildiiit;". 

i^'iLi'iVATioN No. 4. — This elevation li:is been vai'i(Ml l)y 
the iiitrodiictioii of the ai'ched windows nnd eoi'iiei' but- 
tresses. 'I'hes(5 I'eatnres <;iv(» to tlu; biiildini;' a strong' :iiid 
sid)st;intial ai)|)eai'an<'e. 'Vhc enpola is a s(|iia?'e struetni-e 
snpportcd by a projeetinu;' IVaincnvoi'k beiieiith, ;ind in 
keepini;' with Ww ,t!;ener;il architcetnre of the houses The 
nudiM'ial rejtresentvd in the |)i('tnre is stone, though brick 
may })c used. 

The ])()inted jirehes in windows are always ele^'ant, and 
may be nnich nioiH^ commoidy used in bnildin,i>;s to the 
manilest, improvement ol' ;u'ehiteetni-e. The window 
heads and sills should be of cut stone, but a lino elleet 
may Ix^ pi-odueed })y makini;' the arches of brick and 
stone, or brick of two colors hiid nltcrnately. ^Fhe strinjj;- 
course at (he basi^ of the window-caps uuiy be omitted 
eidirely, and llu^ windows linished in the ordinaiy manner. 
The buttresses should always terminate in pinnacles, or 
otherwise the structure would appear bald and unlinished. 
Ill case brick is usimI in the erection of this buildini:,', a 
fine impression nuiy be nuide by usin^i;- common bi-ick for 
the principal walls and |)ressed or Milwaukee brick Ibr 
the butti'csses and ornanuuds. 

b]i;KVA'noN No. 5. — This elevation represents a stone 
buildiui;- of ((uaiut dcsij^u, of line ap})earance, and ofcheai) 
construction. Tlu^ walls are made high and the roof 
stee}). The front [)ortion, containing tlie })orches and 
recitation-room, luis a lower wall and a roof which comes 
directly und(>r the cornice of the uuiin building and abuts 
against the gable. The angles of the main roof are cut 
oil", and a [)lain stone cu})ola or bell-tower rises in front. 
I'he wimlow-heads are circular arches, and nuiy be con- 
structed with cut stone or ol" the ordinaiT building stone 



DESIGNS AND KLKVATIONS. 



9:{ 




96 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 97 

ronglily fitted to its place. Courses of brick might be 
made to inclose the windows so as to produce a more 
picturesque effect. 

In this design the fine appearance is entirely owing to 
the disposition of the several parts, each of which is 
necessary to the full effect. To give room for sufficient 
height in the porches, the main walls of the building must 
be carried up rather higher than usual ; but the extra 
height of the school-room will be all the better for the 
pupils, as it affords them a greater amount of air. The 
bell-tower, though a simple wall of stone, with an opening 
for a bell, has a fine outline and is a necessary part of the 
building. Such a structure would be considered orna- 
mental in any part of the country. 

Wherever stone can be easily and cheaply obtained a 
building of this description may be put up at a moderate 
expense. 

In constructing a stone building, extra care must be 
taken that the foundations are securely laid below the 
action of frost. The walls should be hollow or furred. 

Elevations 4 and 5 would be appropriate designs for 
small churches, and be much more expressive in their 
architecture, while no more costly than many of the 
country churches now erected. 



98 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



DESIGN IV. 




The plan of this design represents another of the 
medium-sized school-houses. It is rectangular in form, 
and the school-room has seats for sixty 
pupils. By changes like that described 
in Design III., it may be made to accom- 
modate more or less, according to the 
requirements. In the rear of the main 
building is a smaller structure, which may 
be used as a wood-room, recitation-room, 
or both. In it are the back entr^'-ways. 
The windows are put into one grouj) on 
each side, for reasons given in the de- 
scription of Design 11. The door in the 
front partition* of the school-room may be omitted, and 
the entrance to the front recitation-room made through 
the front halls. The stoves and ventilating flues are 
arranged as in Design III. The recitation-room may be 
made wider by a slight increase in the length of the 
building. 

We would call special attention to this design and the 
several elevations accompanying it. It perhaps combines 
more than any other the essential requisites of country 
school-houses. It is cheap. No room is lost, and no 
expense is wasted upon superfluous features. It is simple 
in construction, so that any carpenter can build it who 
has wit enough to put building materials together. It is 
exceedingly neat in appearance, as will be seen by re- 
ferring to any of the elevations given ; and this beauty 
will appear greatly enhanced when these elevations are 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



99 




OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



101 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



103 



compared to the houses now ordinarily found in country 
places. 

It affords ample accommodation for the school and 
freedom of movement for both teacher and pupil. It 
admits light in the most effective manner possible, and if 
properly furnished with adjustable inside blinds, the light 
can be properly tempered and distributed. Ample ar- 
rangements are made for a perfect system of ventilation, 
and an unlimited supply of fresh air in the disposition of 




^feM^i/^^^y.gg^i^^r -^-i;^:— [] — -isp^ j^^^^p 



Fig. 63. 

the stoves, chimneys, and ventilating tubes. If intelligent 
care is bestowed upon them, pupils need never suffer from 
the effects of foul air. Provision has also been made for 
ample summer ventilation in the large openings on the 
four sides of the house. 

Again, by having an extra recitation-room the plan is 
an adjustable one, admitting of the employment of an 
extra teacher during the season when the school is most 
crowded. If either of the elevations of this design is 
adopted, and the building erected as described, it will 
last for several generations, and will afford ample and 
excellent accommodation for all. 



104 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

One of the rooms in the rear or the recitation-room in 
front may be used for the district library, or it may be 
fitted up as a cabinet for the reception and preservation of 
such specimens of natural history as are beginning to be con- 
sidered indispensable to the highest success of any school. 

In making choice between the different elevations 
given, unless cheapness is considered the chief requisite, 
preference should be given to one of the more elaborate 
structures ; and wherever a choice can be made in build- 
ing materials, brick or stone should be used in preference 
to wood. A good stone house of this description, well 
furnished, would leave scarcely anything more to be 
desired in the form of school accommodation. 

Elevation No. 1. — This is the plainest possible eleva- 
tion of the plan of Design TV. It is a wood building, 
having a plain roof with the ordinary pitch, and wide 
projecting cornice. The finish may be battens or common 
siding ; the former, however, is to be preferred on the 
score of appearance. The chimney is high and substan- 
tial, and in buildings of this kind, the chimney, being the 
only projection from the roof, should be built with care. 
The windows, which are grouped together in the elevation, 
may be arranged in the usual manner, in which case a 
side window would open into the porch, and the head-light 
above the door might be omitted. 

Elevation No. 2. — This elevation, represented as 
finished in brick, may be built of wood. It is a modifica- 
tion of Elevation No. 1, with a change in the shape of the 
window-heads, the addition of a cupola, and the introduc- 
tion of small mullion windows to light the porches. The 
finish is plain, and the general effect is good. The cupola 
may be omitted if desired, in which case the chimneys 
should be made broader. 

Elevation No. 3. — This elevation is similar to the last, 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 




OUR SCUOOL-UOUSKS. 



107 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 109 

the changes being mainly in detail. The window-heads 
are square instead of circular, and narrow ornamental 
hoods are placed above the windows and doors. The 
windows of No. 2 may be used, if preferred. The main 
feature of difference is the cupola, which in this design 
apparently grows out of the structure beneath, and hence 
is an integral part of it ; while in No. 2 the cupola seems 
to be put on in such a way that it is not an essential part. 
The materials of the building should be brick, and it 
would appear much better to have the roof and base of 
the cupola covered with slate. 

Elevation No. 4. — This is an ornamental design for 
village and suburban places. The cupola is light and 
elegant, and a gable is thrown up over the windows to 
give a greater architectural effect. The chimney is pro- 
jected outside of the main wall, to break the monotony 
of the blank wall between the windows and the front 
corner of the building. The materials may be brick or 
stone. By the introduction of the gable over the windows, 
the walls are made lower, and the roof comes much nearer 
the ground than in the other designs. Instead of a cornice, 
the gables are finished with a coping of stone or of wood 
covered witli tin. 

This elevation would make an elegant design for a coun- 
try church. Its fine architectural appearance is owing 
entirely to the general style of finish, the proportions 
observed, and the disposition of its several parts. No 
one feature has been added for mere ornament, though 
each of the necessary parts has been made ornamental. 
The roof should be of slate. 

Elevation No. 5. — This elevation represents another 
ornamental brick or stone building, with a slate roof. 
The cupola, like that of No. 3, is made to grow out of the 
structure. The windows and doors have pointed Gothic 



110 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

arches, and over each of the side windows a gable has 
been erected. The whole grouping produces a very 
pleasant effect, and the design would make a most excel- 
lent school-house or a snug little church. 

In erecting structures of this kind, great care must be 
taken to make the foundation secure. The underpinning 
should be laid upon concrete, and placed below the action 
of frost. The stone should be laid in hydraulic cement, 
and every care taken that the whole foundation should be 
of sufficient strength to support the weight which must 
rest upon it. 

Objection is sometimes made to the erection of school- 
houses with cupolas and fine windows and doors, because 
they look so much like churches. This objection, however, 
is far from being a logical one. The school and the 
church are both engaged in the same work, and they are 
complementary rather than antagonistic. There is, there- 
fore, no good reason why the fine forms invented to orna- 
ment places of worship should not be considered as 
legitimate when used .to ornament places of instruction. 
As a work of art, and as an elevating influence in 
community, a fine architectural structure would be the 
same in either case ; but in a school-house its beauty 
would have a more practical and enduring influence, as it 
would become intimately associated with the impressible 
hearts of childhood. 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



Ill 




OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



113 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



115 



DESIGN V. 




Fi-. 64. 



The plan of this design represents a building somewhat 
larger than any of the preceding, and one approaching the 
size of the smaller Union Schools. As 
represented, the school-room has seats for 
seventy pupils, and by a slight addition to 
its length and breadth, may be made to 
accommodate from eighty to one hundred. 
The entrances are from the sides, and the 
two sides are finished exactly alike. This 
will give a large and commodious lobby 
for each sex, and a fine recitation-room 
for a second teacher. The entrance to the 
recitation-room may be from the porches, 
and the door in front of the school-room 
omitted, leaving the entire space directly in front for 
blackboard. The heating and ventilation of this room 
is like that already described. The rear doors ma}^ be 
omitted if thought best. 

Elevation No. 1. — This elevation represents a plain 
wood building finished with ordinary siding. The win- 
dows are placed in the ordinary manner, the roof is made 
with as little pitch as is compatible with the use of shin- 
gles. No ornamental work has been admitted. The 
cornice is plain and substantial, and the building is as 
cheap as materials can be put together to answer the 
purpose of a good school-house. The small porch over 
the steps is a very desirable feature for the comfort of the 
pupils and for the cleanliness of the house. It affords 
protection from rains while the pupils are cleaning their 



UG 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



fei't, iind at (lie same time it relieves in some measure the 
monotony of the architecture. A glance at the engraving 



ii^Dl^ 




Fig. CD. 

will show that, for just ])ro])ortions, the roof of the porch 
is too low, and that when built, it should be elevated as 
far as the cornice permits. 

In northern climates the foundations of buildings of this 
kind should be solid and continuous, both to give solidity 
to the structure and to ])revent the circulation of cold air 
beneath the building. In the Southern States, liowever, 
it would be best to rest the building u})on })iers, to give 
a free circulation of air beneath the entire buildiug. This 
will make the school-room cooler in warm weather, and 
will tend to preserve the timbers from decay. The piers 
should be iirmly and securely built, or the building will 
be racked. 

Elevation No. 2. — This elevation represents a wood 
building with a batten finish. An inex})ensive hood is 
})laced above the windows, and a cupola surmounts the 
roof. This last feature may be omitted, as it is not an 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



n 




OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



110 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 121 

essential part of the building. The roof of the porch is 
thrown up into a gable, producing a fine effect at little 
cost. The roof has a plain projecting cornice of the cheap- 
est form. The same form of building may be finished 
with clap-boards, or it may be built of brick. 

Elevation No. 3. — This elevation represents the plain- 
est form of a brick building. The roof is about the usual 
pitch for shingles, and the only extra feature is the cupola, 
which may be omitted. 

Elevation No. 4. — In this elevation the roof is made 
steeper than the last, the cornice lighter, and the exten- 
sion of the cornice across the gable has been omitted. 
The doorway is covered with a porch, which rises in the 
main roof in the form of a gable. The material may be 
brick, stone, or wood. The bell-tower is made smaller 
and lighter than that of No. 3. 

Elevation No. 5. — This elevation in general form is 
like No. 4, but with several modifications in details. The 
pitch of the roof and the form of the cupolas are essen- 
tially the same. The corners of the gables are cut off, 
and the window-heads are rounded arches. In the en- 
graving the finish is represented as brick or stone, with 
cut-stone groins, window-heads, and sills. 

Elevation No. 6. — This is the most elaborate design 
of the series, and makes a highly ornamental school- 
building. It should be built of stone and have a slate 
roof. The doors and windows have pointed arches, and 
the roof and gables all terminate in similar arches. The 
corners of the roof are cut off, and the front is ornamented 
with a plain and substantial cupola. The stonn porch 
over the door terminates in a gable, and all the gables 
are finished with stone copings. This elevation wouid 
make an admirable design for a small country church. 



rj2 



OVR S(MI()()I--1I()IISI':S. 



UNION MdllOOL-MOUSKH. 



'riic i;r(';i,(('s(, ikmmI of (he ('omiiioii schools ol" this couiili-y 

is ;i wrlI-(»r<;;i,iii/,(M| sys((Mu ol" iiisl niclioii. II. is obvious 

lo every one tliiit n course of study 

iidjipted (() \]w. (';i|)!ieily of the more 

luivjineed pupils eiinnot he sueeessCidly 

pursued by llie pi-iin:i!-y ehisses ; and ii 

ou,Li,lil. (o be jus(. us obvious (hat the sys- 

Icui of (b'sei])lin(^, iind Ihe uu'lhods of 

inipui'liui;' iusl ruction in Ihe two ciises, 

should be diJl'ei'eut. l^]duca(ors have 

h)iii;' silicic deuiouslr;i,te(l that certuiu 

fixed |)i'iuciples, both of iustnictioii aiul 

discipliiu', ui'c adapted lo Ihe dilVerent 

aL!;es aud (levelo|»uieut of jiupiis ; and 

they have shown tlial a, philosophical 

svsleui of education will riH'oi^'iiizo these 

''''"'''' dilV(M-eiiees, aud apply the |)rineiples in 

Ihe aiTaii!;-euuMit of schools and in (he couslruetion of 

school-houses. 

When pupils of all a<2;(\s and stales of advaneonient are 
bi'oULiht loL!;elher iulo one I'ooui for the purposes of educa- 
tion, as ill our ordinary district schools, tlu» work of in- 
struction is very iiuperlectly luuToriued. The (piietness 
aud attention lo study iu>cessai'V to the |)roii;iH'ss and hiuh- 
(\st success of an advanced school cannot be (Mdbrc(Ml in 
prinuiry chisst\s without seriously injuring' the pupils, both 
|)hysically ami lucntally ; and couvei'scdy. (lie frequent 
chanu-e of posi(ioii and nois(> incidcud (hereon, indispensa- 
ble lo primary classes, cannol be permitted in a more 




DKSIGNS AND FJ.KVATIONS. 



123 




jaSS*— ^ 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



125 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 127 

advanced school without a relaxation of discipline and an 
interference with study incompatible with its highest in- 
terests. 

Again, the kind of instruction and the methods of im- 
parting it are essentially different in the two cases. With 
primary classes the instruction should be confined princi- 
pally to the elements of science objectively presented, and 
made interesting by appealing directly to the senses. The 
subject of instruction should be gradually developed, and 
the lessons principally oral. In the higher schools this 
system is changed. The primary knowledge having been 
gained, the exi)anding minds instinctively seek generaliza- 
tions and principles. This requires (juiet for thought, 
study, and reflection ; and this quiet is not attainable in 
a room when i)rimary instruction is properly going on. 
Our schools can never reach their highest state until 
these two incompatible states of discipline and instruction 
arc finally and effectively separated. 

Among the other faults of ungraded schools may be 
enumerated the following : 1st. The difficulty of having 
the school-room properly seated so as to accommodate 
all sizes of pupils. 2d. The great range of studies neces- 
sary to be pursued at the same time, rendering it difficult 
for the teacher to reach a high degree of excellence in the 
teaching of any. 3d. The great number of classes, allow- 
ing the teacher an entirely inade([uatc portion of time to 
each, and causing him to hurry from one to the other so 
rapidly that he cannot do justice to any. 4th. The 
confused and desultory manner in which instruction is 
carried on renders the school unattractive both to pu[)il 
and parent, and, consecjuently, there is little interest 
manifested in its welfare. 

These difficulties will never be entirely removed until 
our schools are graded, and tliere has been developed 



128 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 




Fi-. 07. 



and ai){)lied a complete and thorongli system of instruc- 
tion. This system should embrace, substantially, the 
whole course now pursued in our common 
schools, academies, and colleges, open to all, 
but allowing each individual to take only such 
portions of the advanced course as suits his 
inclination and circumstances. The applica- 
tion of the different portions of this system to 
the different grades of schools, and the nice 
adaptation of its progressive parts, are 
problems which demand the highest wisdom 
combined with the largest experience ; but 
when once solved, they will be of incalculable benefit to 
education everywhere. 

When such a system of instruction 
becomes established, the schools must be 
more efficient, and pupils will advance 
with greater rapidit3\ Teachers will not 
be left in doubt as to what course to pur- 
sue ; for a specific work, arranged for each 
term and j'ear, must be accomplished. 
Teaching will progress according to well- 
defined principles, instead of being left to 
individual caprice. The gradation, thor* 
ough system, and division of labor, will 
effect a saving of time equal to one-half of 
the entire period now allotted to the school- 
room, thereby doubling the educational advantages of our 
children. The means of a liberal education will be 
brought within the reach of all, at a cost but little greater 
than that of our present imperfect and inefficient course. 

A full enumeration of the advantages of the proposed 
improvements, and of the changes necessary to effect it, 
would fill a volume. A very brief view of the main 




Fig. 68. 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



129 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



13] 




Fiff. 69. 

Intermediate Schools should 



features of the system, as far as they relate to the general 
organization of schools and the building of school-houses, 
is all that we need attempt here. 

Primary Schools. — Primary Schools should 
embrace a five years' course of study, extend- 
ing from the age of five to ten years, with 
pupils of the average ability. They should 
take the place of the present District Schools, 
and be brought within the reach of every home 
in the land. The instruction should proceed 
in a regular course, and the pupils should be 
advanced, year by year, into higher classes, 
until the whole five years' course is thoroughly 
mastered. 

Intermediate Schools 
embrace a four years' course of study, continuing the 
work of instruction to the age of four- 
teen. They should be made up of a 
sufficient number of pupils from the 
Primary Schools to furnish the requi- 
site number of a proper grade. The 
instruction here should be systematic, 
and the pupils advanced, year by year, 
as in the Primary Schools. The course 
of study in these schools would be about 
the same as that now pursued in our 
academies and in the higher classes of 
our common schools. 

High Schools. — High Schools should ^'^- ''^• 

embrace a four years' course, carrying on instruction to 
the age of eighteen. Such schools might be composed of 
the pupils from a dozen or more intermediate districts. 
The instruction in these schools^ would be equivalent to 
that of our ordinary colleges, though perhaps of a more 




132 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 




immediatel}' practical character. This would complete the 
system of strictly public schools, though, beyond them, 
those of a special character would be 
established, — all necessary to the per- 
fect development of a scheme of Na- 
tional education. Prominent among 
these would be the following : 

The University. — The University 
should be devoted to professional in- 
struction in the departments of Science, 
Language, G-eneral Literature, Law, 
Medicine, and Divinity. It should be 
the crowning glory of all, carrying in- 
/^^■liiiiin struction to the highest point attain- 

able in our present civilization, and 
Fig. 71. elevating civilization itself. It should 

present the golden opportunity to the scholar in pursuit of 
the highest culture, and prove the perpetual fountain from 
which knowledge would flow downward 
through all the grades of schools, until it 
reaches every inhabitant of the land, and 
elevates humanity to a higher level. The 
graduates of the University would naturally 
fdW become the teachers of the High Schools, and 
vimi from these last would come the great mass of 
the teachers of the Intermediate and Primary 
Schools. 

Normal Schools. — Normal Schools, for 

the professional instruction of teachers, would 

find their appropriate place. Such persons 

Fig. 72. Qj-^iy g^g 1^^^ mastered the High School course 

should be admitted to the Normal Schools, and the two or 

three years spent in them should be devoted to the 

examination of the laws which underlie all systems of 





DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 133 

instruction, and the best methods of putting in practice 
the principles so developed. Then teaching would no 
longer be left to the caprice of ignorance, but would be 
intelligently and systematically carried on by persons 
masters of their profession. 

Work Schools. — All pupils should be obliged to take 
the course marked out for Primary and Intermediate 
Schools, but beyond this, entire freedom might 
be allowed. The great mass of pupils would 
probably not wish. to obtain a liberal educa- 
tion, and would desire immediate entrance into 
some branch of industry. For the accommo- 
dation of this class, Work Schools should be Fig. 73. 
established, in which they could obtain a knowledge of 
the fundamental principles of the business in which they 
are to be engaged. These Work Schools would include 
Mechanical, Agricultural, Mercantile, Manufactures, and 
Mining Schools, Schools of Design, etc. 

When this system of graded schools becomes the ruling 
policy, and there shall be established Professional and 
Work Schools to perfect it ; when all these are consoli- 
dated and crystallized into a great national system, reach- 
ing from ocean to ocean, and so ubiquitous and Argus- 
ejed that no child in the Republic can evade its sight or 
escape its influence ; then will labor, organized into sys- 
tem, be respected and honored by all men ; then will 
each individual have the opportunity and all the neces- 
sary aids to secure the development of his peculiar talent 
in the direction that nature designed ; and then we may 
expect a higher and more beneficent civilization. 

In cities, villages, and the more thickly populated por- 
tions of the country, the systematic gradation of schools 
can be easily adopted, and the great advantages arising 
therefrom at once secured. Indeed, the system is now 




134 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

substantially adopted in most of our larger cities. In the 
more sparsely settled portions of the country it is difficult 
to establish any general system that is 
entirely unobjectionable ; but even there, a 
steady policy of consolidatingdistricts instead 
of dividing them would be beneficial, while 
F'K-74. the entire benefits of graded schools might 

be realized by the abolishment of districts and the substi- 
tution therefor of town schools. This matter is considered 
of such importance that an elaborate article upon the 
subject, from the very able report of the Secretary of the 
Vermont Board of Education, is inserted in the Appendix. 
Where the gradation of schools has been established, 
two or more grades are often united in one building, 
under the distinctive name of "Union Schools;" and 
Union School-houses have become one of the "institu- 
tions" of the land. These houses, of necessity, must be 
larger and more costly than the common District School- 
houses ; yet the cost must be far less than the aggregate 
cost of several separate houses affording the same accom- 
modations. The lot, out-buildings, and general surround- 
ings of a Union School-house will cost no more than those 
belonging to each of the smaller houses ; so the argu- 
ment, on the score of economy, is entirely in favor of 
Union School-houses. 

The comparison is sometimes made between the cost 
of a large, well built, and commodious Union School- 
house, possessing all the modern improvements, and that 
of several of the old-fashioned, ill-constructed, and miser- 
abl^'-furnished houses, where children were packed almost 
to suffocation, and the balance has been in favor of the 
latter ; but it is unnecessary to say that such a comparison 
is one-sided and unfair, and that to make it of any value, 
the same conditions must be preserved in the two cases. 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



135 




. j.,r 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 137 

Several of the succeeding plans are well adapted to the 
wants of consolidated districts, and of Union Schools of 
two or more departments. No effort, however, i 
has been made to give a complete series of | 
Union School-houses, as such a series would 1 
be incompatible with the general design of this ^L 
work. Plans for larger and more elaborate Union ^^S^^^ 
School-houses are left for a subsequent work, "^jSi'lV 
in which the whole subject of village and city 
school-house architecture shall be fully discussed. 
The series here given includes houses with ac- 
commodation for sufficient pupils to require the 

employment of from one to four or five teachers. ^ig. 75. 

An effort has been made to present designs which will 
not only answer for immediate use, but will be permanent. 
In the construction of school-houses, it has too often been 
the case that present necessities alone have been provided 
for, and, in consequence, the structures have been of the 
most transient character, causing the whole school system 
to appear equally transient and unstable, and rendering 
necessary a heavy outlay for rebuilding. 

In Massachusetts, where the old system of independent 
districts has been in operation for nearly two centuries, 
the schools of each town have recently been consolidated 
into a Union district with its primary, intermediate, and 
high schools. The result of the experiment has been 
satisfactory in the extreme. A genuine educational re- 
vival has taken place. Much more attention is paid to 
schools on the part of communities, a constant demand is 
made for better qualified teachers, and large numbers of 
new and improved school-houses have been erected. All 
parties interested unite in commendation of the new system, 
as greatly superior to the old in efficiency and in the 
economic expenditure of money. 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



DESIGN VI. 

The plan of Design VI. is like that of Design V., with 
the addition of a building in the rear, and the grouping 
of the windows together. The school- 
room is thirty feet square, and has seats 
for seventy pupils. By increasing its 
length respectively three or six feet, it 
will be made to accommodate eighty or 
ninety pui)ils, and by increasing its length 
six feet and its width four feet, there 
will be room for one hundred and eight 
seats. The rear building may be used 
as a wood-room, or it may be made into 
one or two recitation-rooms. 

The entrance to the recitation-room 
may be from the school-room or from the 
halls. The recitation-room may be heated 
Pig. 76. ^y ^ hot-air pipe, extending from one of 

the stoves in the school-room. 

Once more special attention is called to the arrange- 
ments of the windows and the ventilation of this building. 
The windows are grouped together, and it is believed that 
this arrangement will be considered the best possible for 
a school-room, after it has received a fair trial. It 
furnishes a broad unbroken light, and in summer it will 
permit cooling draughts to circulate through the room 
whenever the air has any motion. 

In winter the doors and windows must be kept closed, 
so that the air may be permitted to circulate in the chan- 
nels provided for it. In this way the room will be kept 




DESIGNS AND ELB]VATIONS. 



139 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



141 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



143 



warm in every part, a strong current of pure air is con- 
stantly entering the room, and the foul air is as constantly 
flowing out. We cannot too often or too strongly urge 
the importance of providing for this perfect ventilation in 
the construction of school-houses. 





oil |o 
o 




Fig. T7. 

Designs Y. and YI. each have two fronts, with separate 
entrances for the sexes, but one might be omitted if 
thought advisable, and the space of the entry-way might 
be used as a clothes-room or extra recitation-room. It 
would be better, however, to retain both entrances. 

Elevation No. 1. — This elevation represents a plain 
wood building finished with battens. The roof is suffi- 
ciently steep for either slate or shingles. The plainness 
of the cornice has been relieved by ornamental scroll- 
work, which may be omitted. The windows are grouped 
together in the whole series, giving broad and continuous 
light. 

The hoods over the doors and windows are simple, and 
they give an additional beauty to the structure. This 



144 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

building, with some simple changes, might be made of 
brick. If built of wood, it can be finished with the ordi- 
nary siding. 

Elevation No. 2. — In this elevation we have a more 
ornamental design. A cupola has been added for a bell- 
tower, and gables have been erected over the doors and 
windows, to relieve the monotony of the outline. The 
gable over the door affords an opportunity for the con- 
struction of a ver}^ desirable open porch. The window- 
gable allows the window to be treated in an elegant 
manner, and the finish of both the sides and end gives to 
the building a very fine appearance. It will be noticed 
that, in the picture, the roof is slightly curved toward the 
eaves. This feature adds to the architectural beauty of 
the design, but it may be omitted, and still a good effect 
be produced. This design may be of wood, brick, or 
stone. If built of wood, the batten finish would be most 
in keeping with the general style of the structure. 

Elevation No. 3. — This elevation in general resem- 
bles No. 2, but is changed in many of its details. The 
roof is straight, and comes down much lower. The win- 
dows and door-gables are elegant in design, and they are 
finished with simple stone copings. The cupola grows 
out of the structure, and is an integral part of it, which 
cannot be omitted without destroying the general symme- 
try of the design. The materials of this building should 
be brick or stone, and the roof should be slate. The 
pointed arches for the window-heads and doors give to 
the design a richness of appearance which fit it admira- 
bly for a village school, to occupy a prominent and sightly 
position. 

Elevation No. 4. — This design is more elaborate and 
quaint than any of the preceding. It has several of the 
features of the older Gothic forms. The roofs are high 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



145 




DESIGNS AND KLMVATIONS. 



147 




Si:€)>— 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 149 

and pointed, and each gable ends in a pinnacle. The 
pinnacle of the front gable forms the bell-tower, and this 
tower commences with a stone projection just above the 
window-heads. The gables are all finished with stone 
copings instead of cornices. The doors and windows are 
projected outward from the sides of the building, and the 
door-gable terminates in the chimney, the flues of which 
are carried up in the door-projection. The rear of the 
door-gable is carried up straight, like similar projections 
in this style of architecture. The roof conies down below 
the gable copings, making the walls of the building com- 
paratively low. 

Elevations Nos. 5 and 6. — These elevations represent 
substantially the same kind of architecture as No. 4, with 
changes and modifications in details. They represent a 
later style of architecture, but still one quite ancient. The 
modifications of the gables, cupolas, door-ways, window- 
heads, and general style of finish are represented in the 
engraving, and need no verbal description. 

These designs are more costly than the plain ones, but 
in districts where there is sufficient wealth to warrant the 
outlay, there can be no doubt in regard to the propriety 
of erecting buildings of this kind. They are ornaments 
to the village ; they assist in educating the community to 
a higher appreciation of architectural forms, and of the 
beautiful in art ; they are attractive places, and children 
are easily taught to take pride in them, and in their pres- 
ervation. In No. 5 the pinnacles upon the gables have 
been omitted to show how important they are in the full 
development of the Gothic designs. The elevation ap- 
pears bare and unfinished when compared with those in 
which the pinnacles are admitted. In Gothic forms the 
only proper way to avoid the use of pinnacles is to droj) 
the corners of the roof, as in Elevation No. 3, Design III. 



150 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

Either of the five preceding designs would make a fine 
country church, cliapel, or session-room. The materials 
for the construction should be brick or stone, and the 
copings of the gables should be cut stone. In designs of 
this cliaracter no attempt should be made to reduce the 
cost, by changes of form, or by the use of cheap and poor 
materials. Where economy is essential, some of the 
cheaper forms of buildings should be adopted, and no 
effort wasted in endeavoring to build elaborate structures 
at little cost, or to produce line architectural effects with 
inadequate materials. In each of these structures great 
care must be taken to have the foundation lirm and secure. 
The roof, also, being a very prominent feature, should be 
accurately made, and, if possible, covered with slate. 

In making choice between these different elevations, 
care should be taken to select such as will be found to 
harmonize best with the surrounding scenery. Pointed 
gables and i)innacles will generally be found best adapted 
to a hilly country, while the broad roofs and projecting 
eaves will be more in harmony with the scenery of a level 
region. Again, there will be ample opportunity for the 
display of taste in deciding upon fitness in regard to 
situation, whether upon the hill-side or valley, whether in 
the village or strictly rural region, and whether in an 
open exposed place or nestled in some sheltered woody 
nook. 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



151 




DESIONH AM) Kf-KVATIONR. 



15:5 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



00 



DESIGN VII. 



The plan of Design VII. represents a building with 
two school-rooms, and another large room which may be 
used as a single recitation-room, or divided into two. 
The school-rooms are separated by sliding doors, so that 
they may be thrown into one when occasion requires. 
Each room may be made to accommodate forty-two, fift}^- 
six, or sixt3^-four pupils, without essentially changing the 
appearance of the building. The porches in front are 
ample for entry-ways and cloak-rooms. By a little addi- 




Fig. 78. 



tion to the width of the front projection, room would be 
obtained for staircases, and the building might be made 
tv/o stories in height. 

Elevation No. 1. — The roof of the main buildin"; is 



156 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 




put on at right angles to the roofs of the front and rear 
projections, and all these are finished with gables. The 
eaves of the three buildings are of the same 
height, and an ornamental cornice is made 
to extend across the gables. The cornices 
have a moderate projection and are finished 
with modillions. The pitch of the roof is 
as little as is compatible with the use of 
shingles. The window and door heads are 
rounded arches, and a string-course is 
made in the wall at the base of the window 
and door caps. These caps should be made 
of stone of two different colors, and cut to 
conform to the circle of the arch. A good 
effect may be produced by making these of 
brick and stone combined. The cupola is 
needed to give completeness to the building, but it may be 
omitted. The materials of this building should be brick 
or stone. 

Elevation No. 2.- — This elevation represents a very 
plain building, which may be built of wood, brick, or 
stone. The nTain building has a square hip-roof, and the 
projections have ordinary roofs with the corners cut off, 
and each side is relieved by a vertical projection. The 
cupola is a necessary part of the structure. The window- 
heads are square, to correspond with the general charac- 
ter of the elevation. If built of wood the finish mioht be 
of battens or clap-boards, but the former would best 
accord with the general st^de. The low roof, the brack- 
eted cornice, and the general structure of this building 
admirably fits it for a prairie region. 

Elevation No. 3. — This is a plain wooden structure, 
finished with battens. The projecting cornice is orna- 
mented with filigree-work, which mav be omitted. The 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



15^ 




DEfllClN'.S AND ELKVATIONS. 



ir,o 



! , Jill. 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



161 



windows and doors are ornamented with simple projecting 
hoods, put on in the form of gables. 

Elevation No. 4. — This elevation represents a struc- 
ture with several features of the Grothic architecture. The 
roofs are all steep, and the gables terminate in pinnacles. 
The window and door heads are pointed arches, and the 
cupola is finished in similar forms. A sill-course extends 
around the building level with the window-sills. The 
materials should be brick or stone, and the roof should 
be slate. 




Fig. 80. 



Elevation No. 5. — In this elevation we have another 
design with high steep roof and pointed gables. The 
window-heads, however, are square, and the gables are 
finished with a stoDC coping, which gives the structure a 

11 



162 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

rich appearance. To break the monotony of the roof. 
little gables are projected over the doors and over the 
windows of the rear building. The cupola and ornamen- 
tal chimneys are essential parts of the building. The 
materials should be brick or stone, and the window orna- 
ments and copings should be cut stone. This elevation 
would be a fine design for a suburban or village dwelling, 
the only change necessary being in the inside structure. 

Elevation No. 6. — This elevation represents a ver}' 
plain and cheap structure of wood, the plainest form in 
which this general design can be represented. The finish 
is with battens. The roof has a plain and wide projecting 
cornice, giving a comfortable appearance to the design. 
The corners of the projections are made to fall below those 
of the main building for cheapness of structure and for 
variety in appearance. The windows of the school-rooms 
are grouped together. A bell-tower may be added to the 
centre of the roof if needed. This is a fine design for 
prairies and level country places, and it would by no 
means be considered out of place in a village. 

Elevation No. 7. — This, the last of the series, is a 
very plain and substantial building. Its various features 
are happily blended, and its general appearance is fine. 
The roof is steep, but the gables, instead of terminating in 
pinnacles, are cut off, and the windows terminate in pointed 
arches. The large window in the principal gable is fin- 
ished in a comparatively cheap form, yet it is so arranged 
as to become a prominent and beautiful feature in the 
building. 

The materials should be brick or stone, though wood 
may be used. The cupola is an essential part of the 
building, and cannot be omitted. 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



163 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 167 



CONCRETE FOR BUILDING. 

In erecting houses of considerable size and cost, due 
attention should be paid to durability. If the present 
generation leave as a legac}^ to their descendants excellent 
school buildings, the next generation may be supplied 
with the apparatus and physical appliances necessary to 
secure the highest success of the scliool. If, on the con- 
trary, our children must be heavily taxed for school- 
houses, the era of school improvement in regard to 
methods, libraries, and cabinets, must be postponed for 
another generation. 

Wood is the material most commonly used in the con- 
struction of school-houses, on account of its cheapness ; 
and it answers a very good purpose for the building of 
small houses and for those that are designed to be tem- 
porary. Permanent houses, however, should be built of 
brick or stone ; and this especially should be the case in 
the construction of the more elaborate elevations of the 
designs given in this work. 

Stone is the best material for building which nature has 
furnished, and, in localities where it can be procured at 
little cost, it should always be used in the construction of 
school-houses. Walls of stone, well laid upon permanent 
foundations reaching below the action of frost, never 
crumble or crack, never shrink and shrivel in the rays of 
the sun, nor warp out of position ; but they stand firm and 
erect, affording shelter and protection to man}^ genera- 
tions of children. Tender associations have time to 
cluster around such a building, and the spot where it 
stands becomes hallowed by the vivid and ineffaceable 



168 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

recollections of cliildliood. The clinging mosses and the 
gray lichens that clamber over its surface and nestle 
lovingly in every seam and crevice ; and the sombre tints 
of brown that time spreads over its entire exterior, make 
it an object of admiration and an influence at once ele- 
vating and ennobling. 

Brick may be used when good building stone cannot be 
procured, but it lacks the solidity, beauty, and durability 
of stone. When brick is used an effort should be made 
to relieve the dreary monotony of the color by the use of 
stone for door and window trimmings and for corners. 
Brick walls, however, left hollow or well furred out, afford 
a much better protection from the weather and are much 
more durable than wood. 

In many country' places building stone cannot be ob- 
tained and brick is too expensive for economic use. In 
such localities substantial walls may be made of cobble- 
stone, gravel, and sand, which will be at once cheap and 
durable. Such walls are known as concrete, and when 
correctly built have all the solidity of the best stone. 

When it is designed to build a concrete house, the site 
should be located near a bank of clean gravel, to lessen 
the expense of transporting materials. Excavations 
should then be made for the foundation walls below the 
action of frost. The concrete should be made of clean 
sand four parts and hydraulic cement one part, thoroughly 
mixed when dry, and then wet to the consistency of a thin 
mortar. In the use of coarse gravel, one part of cement 
should be used to ten parts of gravel. The excavation 
should be filled with this mixture, taking care to use 
enouo-h of the sand mortar to fill all the interstices 
between the coarser materials. Stones of any size or 
shape may be used, only each should be thoroughly 
bedded in the mortar. 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



169 




't ' 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



171 




DESIGNS AND EL?]VATIONS. 173 

About one foot in height of this wall may be built per 
day in drying weather. From the surface upward curbs 
of plank, well stayed so as not to spring or warp, should 
be used ; and, as each portion of the wall below sets, the 
curbs may be elevated to receive the new portion. The 
hydraulic cement should be used exclusively to a 
distance of one or two feet above the su;'face, after 
which cement and quick-lime should be mixed in equal 
proportions. 

The door and window frames should be set in their 
proper places, and the concrete built around them as in 
ordinary stone or brick walls. Care should be taken to 
continually pack the mortar by tamping it with a stick 
prepared for the purpose, so that no openings will be left 
in the wall. Moulds of any form may be used for the 
window-sills, and for the window and door caps. Orna- 
mental projections may also be made at the corners if 
desired. 

As fast as the work progresses the outside should be 
covered with a thin coat of plaster, made of clean sand 
and hydraulic cement, so that all the little interstices may 
be filled and a smooth exterior finish secured. When the 
building is done it will be one solid stone from the lounda- 
tion to the top, and if properly built will be almost inde- 
structible. 

In the use of concrete several cautions must be observed. 
The cement and lime used must be fresh and of good 
quality. The sand should be moderately coarse and clean. 
Neither with the sand nor gravel used should any dirt be 
admitted. The curbs should be moved with care, and the 
work built no faster than the mass below sets. 

Where sand, gravel, and cobble-stone are easily ob- 
tained, a concrete building can be erected more cheaply 
than any other. The whole of the work may be done by 



174 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

unskilled laborers under the direction of one competent 
foreman. 

The use of this material in building largel}' obtains in 
niiiii}' pai'ls of Europe. The late acjueducts and sewers 
of i*aris have been made of stone manufactured in this 
manner, and the stone used in the construction of the Suez 
Canal was made from the sands of the desert through 
which it passes. In the vicinity of Paris a church has 
been erected of this material, which is one solid stone 
IVom the foundation to the top of the cross which sur- 
mounts the spire. 

This concrete may also be used economically for a great 
variety of useful purposes. For drains and sewers it is 
as durable as the most costly and solid masonry. For 
floors to cellars and out-buildings, where solidity and pro- 
tection against dampness are desirable, it is the best 
material that has yet been devised. It can be readily 
moulded into any desirable form for window and door 
caps and sills, and the ornamental stone-work of archi- 
tecture. When uKule into blocks it may also receive any 
desired color ; and in this manner the beautiful in form 
and variety in color can be secured at small cost. 



DESIGN'S AND ELEVATIONS. 



175 




)• 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 177 



DESIGN VIII. 

The plan of Design YIII. represents a large building, 
with two commodious school-rooms, and a large recitation- 
room, which may be divided into two. The halls in front 
are sufficiently spacious for wardrobes, and for staircases, 
if an extra story is needed. In front, opening into the 
front halls, are two small rooms, which may be used for 
fuel : they are so arranged that no dust need get into 
the rooms. The stoves are placed in niches in the front of 
the rooms, entirely out of the way. The ventilating flues 
are in the corners diagonally opposite. With due care in 
construction, the ventilation of these rooms will be perfect. 

The light is admitted to the school-rooms upon one side 
only. In the rear of the school-rooms are two small rooms 
for apparatus, or, if there is a supply of running water, 
for water-closets. The small halls in the rear open both 
into the recitation and school-rooms. The large windows, 
properly supplied with blinds, will afford a strong and 
evenly distributed light, and one that can be tempered 
and controlled at will. 

Elevation No. 1. — This elevation represents a plain 
substantial building, with steep roofs. The gables are 
plain and terminate in pinnacles. The cupola on the 
centre is all that is strictly ornamental, and even this may 
be omitted, though the building will appear much better 
with it. The doors and windows terminate in round 
arches. The group of windows, opening into the school- 
room, gives a fine architectural appearance to that side of 
the house. In front, the blank wall is relieved by blank 
windows. The materials for the building may be wood, 
brick, or stone. If wood is used the finish should be 

12 



178 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



with battens, so that the lines may be vertical. If brick, 
the ornamental work around the windows and doors 
should be of cut stone, of at least two different colors, or 
of brick and stone. The roof should be of slate, though 
shingles may be used. 




Fig. 81. 



Elevation No. 2. — This is another very plain and sat- 
isfactory design. The roof has a steep pitch, but the cor- 
ners of the gables are cut down, avoiding the necessity of 
using pinnacles. The front is ornamented by the two 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



179 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



181 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. iod 

stately doorways, which terminate in pointed arches, and 
the blank side-walls are broken by the projection of the 
chimneys. The large window in the side is a combination 
of fine forms, and the whole design is chaste and elegant. 
The cupola and ornamental chimney-tops are necessary 
parts of the building. 

It should be built of brick or stone, thcmgh wood may- 
be used. With brick as the material, the windows and 
doors should be finished with cut stone of diflerent colors, 
or of stone and brick alternately, as represented in the 
engraving. 

A fine effect would be produced by using stone in a 
rough state for the walls, and ornamenting the windows, 
doors, and corners by projections, the courses alternately 
of different-colored cut stone. It may be built of wood, 
in which case the finish should be with battens. The fine 
effect of this building is owing to the judicious arrange- 
ments of the parts, as it is exceedingly simple, and would 
cost but little more than the plainest form that can be 
devised. The extra cost is in the roof and window-heads. 

Elevation No. 3. — This elevation represents Design 
YIIL, finished with a French ,or Mansard roof. In the 
centre a square hip-roof terminates in a cupola, and on 
the sides the steep French roof comes down to the cornice. 
The top of the steep portion is surmounted by an orna- 
mental open balustrade. The walls, windows, and doors 
are like those of Elevation No. 1. 

The French roof, in general, is not well adapted to 
buildings of one story, but this design would be an ad- 
mirable one for a level country, or for hot climates, where 
it is necessary to have considerable space between the 
room occupied and the direct rays of the sun. If an 
extra story should be given to this building, the French 
roof would appear to better advantage, and the design 
would prove admirable. 



184 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



DESIGN IX. 



Ill 

huilil 




some sections of tlic country the octagonal form of 
ings is popular, chiefly on account of economy. The 
same amount of walls and roof, in an octagon, 
will inclose a greater area than any rectangu- 
lar form. The great objection to this building 
is its unsightly appearance, and indeed, an oc- 
tagon, witli a plain hip-roof, and no projections 
to relieve the dead monot(^ny of its walls, has 
about as much architectural beauty as a joint 
of stove-i)ipe set u})right. In the elevations 
given, an eflbrt has been made to obviate the 
difllculty by varying the outline by projections, 
by carrying the roof u}) in gables. The plan is 




Pig. 83. 



admirably adapted to the wants of a small school. The 
room is compact, well lighted, and easily ventilated. In 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



185 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



187 



warm weather, the windows and doors can be opened 
upon seven sides, insuring a circulation of air. Upon 
two sides, porches for entrances have been built, and the 
doors to these are on the sides rather than in front. 

The elevation of this design is so placed that we stand 
directly in front of one of the porches, and have a view 
of the front of the building and the door of the other 
porch. The chimney is projected from the wall so as to 
relieve the blank space, and the top is finished for a bell- 
tower. The materials may be of wood, brick, or stone, 
and the finish of any kind that is used in architecture. 
The only special caution necessary in constructing this 
building is that the roof shall be well made. The gutters 
must be lined with metal, which should be held in its 
place by the projecting ends of the shingles, but not nailed. 
If nailed, water will find its way through the nail holes, 
and the frost will tear the metal asunder. , 




fig. 84. 



188 



OUll BOlIOOL-llOUSES. 



DESIGN X. 



This 
front. 




Fitr. Hh 



Design 



design represents iin oetagon witli ii projecting 
Tlie walls arc sixteen feet, and the room has ani- 
|)le accommodations for sixt}'^ jmpils. In the 
front are two fme porches, and in the rear is a 
lai'ge recitation-room and two sm;ill triangnlar 
hack i)assage-ways. The room is admirably 
lighted l)y the windows npon the two sides, and 
ill every way is convenient for a school. 

The elevation of this design represents the 
fonr o])p()site sides thi'own np into gables, all 
ending in piiniacles. The corners of the gables 
may be cnl down as in Filevation No. 7, of 
yjll., if desired. The materials may be wood or 




Fiff. 86. 

brick. Tf wood is nsed, (he linish shonld be with battens. 
If brick, (he window-sills shonld be cnt stone, and the 



DESIGNS AND laj'lV ATIONH. 



180 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 191 

window-caps, stone, or projecting brick arches. The 
cupola is a necessary part of this building, and should not 
be omitted. 

An examination of this plan and elevation will show 
that it is admirably adapted to the purposes of a school. 
The school-room is sufficiently commodious to accommo- 
date a sufficient number of pupils to give employment to 
one or two teachers. It is well lighted and ventilated. 
The arrangement of seats, blackboards, stoves, and pas- 
sage-ways secures at once comfort and convenience. The 
ventilating ducts are placed at the farthest extremity of 
the recitation-rooms, and openings are left in the partition 
at the bottom so that both rooms are heated and ventilated 
b}^ the same apparatus. 

The elevation will admit of many changes in details. 
The window and door caps may be finished in pointed 
arches, and the cupola may be made more 0{)en, like some 
of the preceding designs. In the construction of octagon 
buildings, relatively a greater saving can be effected by 
using concrete than in any other form. The curbs used 
for the walls can be as easily fitted for the corners as 
though they were right angles ; while by the use of brick 
or stone a considerable expense would be incurred by the 
extra mason-work in shaping the corners. 



192 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



DESIGN XI. 

The plan of this design is very much like that of Design 
VIII., but with the front halls broadened so as to admit 




Fig. 87. 



of the construction of a staircase in each, in case a two- 
story building should be needed. 



DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 



193 




DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 195 

Each floor consists of two large school-rooms, and a 
recitation-room, which may be divided into two if neces- 
sary. The broad light coming in npon one side only is in 
accordance with the latest scientific authority, and the 
ventilating apparatus will furnish fresh air continually and 
in abundance. 

The elevation of this design is a cheap affair, and is 
given rather as a hint than as a design to be copied. For 
a building of the size a plainer finish could scarcely be 
devised. Should a more elaborate roof and finish be 
desired, either of the three elevations of Design YIII. 
might be copied. The Mansard roof of Elevation No. 3, 
Design VIII., would appear much better on a two-story 
building like Design XL 

This elevation is the last of the series in this work, and 
it serves as a connecting link between the smaller houses 
adapted to country districts and the more elaborate and 
varied architecture demanded b}^ village and union schools. 

In most villages where two or three teachers are con- 
stantly employed, a two-story house much larger than is 
required for the daily needs of the school should be 
erected. The lower floor of this edifice should be de- 
voted to the schools, and the upper floor should be made 
into a public hall. In this manner provision can be made 
at little expense for the accommodation of school exhibi- 
tions, public lectures, and the like, and the whole would 
be under the control of the school trustees, and would 
thus become a part of the educational influences of the 
community. The profits arising from letting the hall, in 
most cases, would pay the interest on the money invested, 
and in a series of years would supply the school with 
apparatus and a library. 



CHAPTER yill. 

FURNITURE. 

All effort at reform in the building of school-houses 
will fall far short of accomplishing its object, unless it 
comprehends a radical change in school-house furniture. 
In a great majority of our country districts the furniture 
used is of the very rudest description, and does not 
answer the purposes of its construction. Even in sections 
of the country where education has received considerable 
attention, and the appearance and condition of the school- 
house have been improved, the old desks and benches 
are too often retained. We have already alluded to the 
positive evils resulting from this state of things. Not 
only are the pupils rendered physically uncomfortable, 
but their bodies are often permanently injured, and their 
mental improvement seriously retarded. 

The whole philosophy of this subject seems to lie in the 
proposition, " That the furniture of the school-house should 
be such as will conduce to the health and comfort of the 
pupils, and to the general convenience of the whole 
school.'' Anything less than this would be a positive 
wrong, and ought never to be tolerated. It is also very 
desirable to take one step farther, and make the whole so 
attractive that it will have a direct tendency to cultivate 
good taste and refinement. 

School-house furniture is of two kinds, the general and 
the special : the former comprehending all the articles 



FURNITURE. 197 

needed for preserving order and cleanliness, and the 
latter including that which is peculiar to the school-room, 
such as desks, seats, tables, and the like. 



GENERAL FURNITURE. 

By general furniture we mean all the apparatus neces- 
sary for convenience and cleanliness, but which is not 
necessarily peculiar to the school-room. Were it not 
for an almost culpable negligence on the part of school 
officers generally, it would not be necessary to speak of 
these matters in a work of this kind ; but teachers and 
pupils are often seriously incommoded, and schools mate- 
rially injured, by inattention and neglect in such little 
things. All of the following articles are absolutely indis- 
pensable to the highest interests of the school. 

Scrapers. — For the purpose of affording facilities for 
removing mud from the feet, plank or stone walks should 
be constructed, and steps of like materials should be put 
up at all outside doors. These walks and steps should be 
supplied with scrapers, so that a large number of pupils 
can use them at the same time. A strip of band-iron 
securely nailed to the edge of a plank, so that the edge 
of the iron may rise half an inch above the surface of the 
plank, will make an excellent and economical scraper. A 
great variety of portable scrapers are manufactured, and 
can be easily and cheaply procured by those who prefer 
them. 

Mats. — Every outside door should be provided with 
one or more coarse mats, and the inside doors with those 
of a finer character. Mats made of the husks of maize are 
well adapted to the former situation, and pieces of rag- 
carpet, or something of the kind, would answer well for 



198 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

the latter. Coarse rope matting is more costly, but more 
durable than husks. In school-houses of more than one 
story, it would be well to carpet the staircases with rope 
matting to deaden the sound of j)assing feet. 

Brooms and hrusiiks. — Having taken measures to pre- 
vent the accunndation of dirt in a school-room, there next 
should be provided means for removing that which will 
collect in s})ite of ;U1 })re('auti<)ns. Every school-room 
should be thoroughly swe})t every day, and tlie lloor 
should be well scrubbed at least once a week. For these 
purposes a broom, a floor brush, and scrubbing-brush or 
mop should be provided. A small Hoor brush is indis- 
pensable in removing tlie dirt from under the seats and 
desks. 

Pails. — A mop-pail must necessarily accompany the 
mop or scrubbing-brush ; and there should also be pro- 
vided a i)ail and (;ups, for the })urpose of furnishing the 
pupils with drinking-water when necessary. 

Wash-basins, etc. — In the back hall there should be a 
sink or bench, iurnished with wash-basins and towels. 
As personal cleanliness is a cardinal virtue, and as chil- 
dren cannot always avoid becoming dirty while at school, 
the means for removing the dirt becomes a matter of prime 
necessity. With these facilities, teachers need never 
allow pupils to enter the school -room with dirty hands 
and faces ; and the result of elforts bestowed in this direc- 
tion will be fixed habits of })ersonal neatness, which will 
not only add to individual health, but to public morality. 

Umbrella stands. — A water-tight box, or half of a 
tight barrel, should be placed in each of the front halls to 
I'cceivc umbrellas, and to })revent the annoyance arising 
from their dripping upon the lloor. 

Olothes-hooks. — Pupils should never be allowed to 
bring their hats, bonnets, and extra clothing into the 



• FURNITURE. 199 

school-room when the school-house contains a hall. In 
this hall substantial clothes-hooks should be placed to 
afford ample accommodation. These hooks should be 
numbered, so as to prevent the confusion arising from 
having several claimants for one hook. Pins made of 
hard wood might be used for clothes-hooks ; and, indeed, 
such pins would be much better than the common iron 
hooks, which are too easily broken. 

FiKPJ AFFARATUH. — Bcsidcs thc stovc, scvcral other fire 
utensils are necessary for convenience and safety. When 
wood is used, there should always be furnished a shovel, 
pair of tongs, and a sheet-iron ash-pail. When coal is 
used, a scuttle, poker, and screen, in addition to the 
above. An iron ash-pail is indispensable to afford pro- 
tection against fire. Many a school-house has been 
burned in consequence of storing ashes in barrels or other 
vessel of wood. 

Clock. — All system in school operations must depend 
upon the proper observance of time, and hence a good 
time-piece should be provided. A clock placed in sight 
of all the pupils is much preferable to a watch in the 
hands of the teacher. The cost of a good clock is incon- 
siderable, and no good reason can be assigned for not 
providing one for every school-house in the land. 

Prociramme clock. — A school clock has lately been 
invented and brought into use, so constructed that it may 
be set to strike at any times desired. When the teacher 
has made out his programme, he can set his clock to strike 
at the close of each exercise. Teachers and pupils are 
thus automatically reminded of the school order, and no 
one is obliged to watch the time, and so have his attention 
diverted from the work on hand. This clock would be a 
desirable acquisition in any school. 

Thermometer. — For the preservation of health, a nearly 



200 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. « 

uuiform tempei'ature should be preserved. But our owu 
sensations of heat and cold cannot be depended upon, as 
they are seriously affected by our physical condition. A 
thermometer should be provided as a guide, and to pre- 
vent the alternate broilings and freezings to wliich chil- 
dren are so frequently subjected. 

In most cases the teacher can succeed in obtaining these 
articles of general furniture by properly presenting the 
matter to the trustees or committee. He can also see that 
they are all put to their proper use. In the matter of 
cleanliness, especially, he can produce radical and much 
needed reforms by a little care and attention. B}^ pre- 
cept and example he can create a public sentiment in 
his school, so that an end will be made of that iilthi- 
ness which is so common in our country school-houses, 
and lasting habits of neatness may be formed by his 
pupils. 

Another important lesson in connection with furniture 
may be enforced by the teacher, viz., that useful articles 
should be used and not abused. The destructive propen- 
sities of children should be checked at an early period, 
and they should be taught to take care of ever^^thing 
provided for their education. Indeed, this care becomes 
an important element of education, leading to wise econo- 
mies and habits of self-restraint. Children at quite an 
early age may be taught that saving is as important as 
earning, and that economy is a virtue that can be always 
shown in thoughtful care. 



SPECIAL FURNITURE. 

In the construction of seats and desks the following 
general principles should be observed : 



FURNITURE. 201 

First : They should be substantial, not easily broken or 
disarranged. The furniture of a school-room, of neces- 
sity, is subjected to comparatively rough usage, and if 
made weak, its frail appearance invites and stimulates the 
rudeness which destroys it. Strength, then, is a necessary 
condition, not only to preserve it from ruin, but to repress 
the element which is usually precociously developed in 
children. 

Second: They should be easy and comfortable. 
Churches are usually furnished with cushioned seats, 
although occupied but a limited portion of one day in the 
week, while the school-house, which is occupied five days 
in the week, is supplied with rough, ill-shaped benches. 
This custom, to say the least, is not philosophical. There 
is no good reason why tlie seats in our school-houses 
should not be more comfortable than those in our churches. 
This general rule of comfort would preclude the use of 
seats without backs of suitable form. Tlie spines of chil- 
dren have often become distorted from lack of su^^port 
while sitting in the school-room. The sufferings which 
those little frames have undergone would cast in the shade 
the horrors of the "middle passage." 

Third : The seats should be graded to the different sizes 
of pupils. This principle is often practically violated, and 
school-rooms are provided with seats all of the same size. 
In consequence, either the larger pupils are seated much 
too low for comfort, or the smaller ones are perched so 
high that their feet cannot touch the floor, and they arc 
obliged to maintain a constant watchfulness lest they 
should fall from their dizzy eminence. With this latter 
class, "to sit" becomes an exceedingly active verb, and 
restlessness, aches, and distortions often result. 

Fourth: They should be constructed so as to afford 
accommodation to the pupil and to all his educational 



202 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

apparatus. A shelf should be provided for packing away 
books, slates, maps, etc., and a permanent inkstand, to 
prevent the frequent injury and disfigurement resulting 
from overturning the ink. 

Fifth : They should be neatly finished, so as to be 
ornamental as well as useful. In this case beauty serves 
the strictly utilitarian purpose of protecting from injury 
as well as a higher and perhaps more important one. The 
rude furniture of the olden time was soon covered with 
ink-spots, cuts, and scratches innumerable. Elaborate 
jack-knife carvings overlaid each other every term, until 
the original form and complexion was entirely obliterated. 
Whenever poorly made or unpainted furniture is used, a 
like result must follow. Well-finished and elegant furni- 
ture, on the contrary, has often been in constant use for 
years, without receiving a single scratch, the beauty pre- 
serving it, as well as serving to inculcate habits of order 
and carefulness. School furniture should be finished like 
fine cabinet-work. 

In their arrangement the seats and desks should be so 
placed that each pupil can freely pass to and from his seat 
without disturbing others, and so that every part of the 
room is accessible to both pupil and teacher. 

To meet all these requirements, single or double desks 
are generally used. The former are preferable on many 
accounts, but as thej^ are more costly and occupy more 
room than the latter, they will probably not come into 
general use. Double desks answer all the demands of 
education, are more economical, and will therefore be 
usually adopted. In the seating of all the designs in this 
work the double desk has been used, and all calculations 
in regard to the number of pupils which each room will 
accommodate have been made with reference to them. 



FURNITURE. 203 



DIRECTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING DESKS. 

Clear, well-seasoned, hard wood, like birch, or cherry, 
or ash, or Connecticut Yalley and Canada chestnut, second 
growth, is the best material of which to construct desks, 
as it is firm and solid, and readily admits of a beautiful 
finish. Desks made of pine or other soft wood are too 
easily scratched and damaged. 

Double desks should be three feet to four feet long, 
and from ten to twenty inches wide, depending on the size 
of the pupils to be accommodated. 

All edges and corners should be carefully rounded, and 
all the work should be smoothed and well finished. 

About two and one-half inches of the farther side of 
the top should be level, and the rest slightly inclined. 

A groove should extend across the level surface to pre- 
vent pencils, etc., from rolling off, and provision should be 
made for the insertion of a permanent inkstand. An 
opening in the farther edge has been sometimes made for 
the purpose of receiving a slate, but of late this arrange- 
ment has been abandoned, as no practical good results, 
and the appearance of the room is injured. 

About five inches below the top of the desk a shelf 
should be placed, two-thirds as wide as the top, and 
slightl}'- inclined backward. 

The standard that supports the desk may be wood or 
iron, and the peculiar manner of constructing each will be 
fully illustrated in the diagrams found in the Appendix. 
"Wood is cheaper, but iron more durable and less liable to 
get out of repair. 

A modern style of seat and desk is made to fold up, to 



204 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES, , 

allow free passage between the desks, to permit pupils to 
rise immediately in their places, and to afford a better 
opportunity for sweeping. This desk will be more particu- 
larly described hereafter. 

The following table shows the height of the seats and 
desks of the different grades as adopted by most of the 
school-furniture manufacturers : 

Height of Desk. Width of Desk. Height of l^eat. 



(1) Children's Desk and 


Settee 


18 in. 


lOi 


in. 


^m 


(2) Small Primary " 


(( 


20 " . 


lOi 


a 


11" " 


(3) Primary « 


a 


22i " 


12' 


a 


12 " 


(4) Intermediate " 


a 


25 " 


15 


a 


13|- " 


(5) Grammar School " 


a 


26i " 


15 


a 


15 " 


(6) High School " 


a 


27i " 


15 


a 


16| " 


(7) Academic " 


(I 


29|- " 


15 


a 


17 " 



The desk height is measured at front — back edge should 
be one and a half inches higher. Seat height is measured 
at front — pitch of seat should be one and a quarter inches. 

Lengths of desks to seat two pupils of the Primary and 
Intermediate grades should be three feet, and for the 
higher grades they should be three feet and six inches. 
Too much care cannot be taken to avoid having the seats 
too high. This is a common fault, and is very injurious to 
children. 

In the Supplement to this volume we shall give elaborate 
illustrated descriptions of the best modern school-furni- 
ture. 



CHAPTER IX. 

APPARATUS. 

In country districts the opinion is quite too frequently 
entertained that when a school-house has been constructed 
and furnished with seats sufficient to accommodate the 
pupils, nothing more is needed to insure the success of the 
school. The necessity and importapce of apparatus, for 
the purpose of establishing facts and illustrating principles, 
is so little understood and appreciated that the majority 
of schools are as destitute of these appliances of instruc- 
tion as though no advance had been made for the last 
hundred years. 

On the other hand, teachers, and sometimes trustees, 
with more zeal than discretion, purchase indiscriminately 
everything that offers in the form of apparatus, and so 
waste money in useless articles. It is a mistaken notion 
that a large amount of costly apparatus is necessary to 
the success of a school. In our academic institutions 
quantities of different articles are frequently found which 
have cost large sums of money, and are useless from not 
being complete or from misuse and neglect. 

These extremes are to be avoided. No money should 
be wasted in the purchase of useless articles in incomplete 
sets, but the things essential should always be furnished. 
Fortunately most of the indispensable apparatus is inex- 
pensive and within the reach of all. The ingenious 
teacher will usually explain and illustrate his lessons by 



200 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

the aid of such common things as can be readily obtained. 
He can also do an excellent work by so presenting the 
snbject that the pupils themselves will be induced to make 
their own experiments with apparatus of their own 
devising. 



GENERAL APPARATUS. 

Blackboards. — The first article of general apparatus 
indispensable in every school-room is a blackboard. 
There is scarcely a single exercise in the school but may 
be made more clear and interesting by the use of the 
blackboard and chalk. With it large classes are taught 
with as much facility as individuals are without it, and 
there is not a moment in the day when its aid may not be 
required to elucidate some dithcult point, or to teach to 
the eye what the mind docs not distinctly comprehend 
through the avenue of the ear. A teacher who under- 
stands drawing can make it compensate in a great measure 
for the lack of almost ever}^ other kind of apparatus. We 
look upon the blackboard as a school-house lixture almost 
as important as the roof or foundation-stones ; and in this 
age of the world there is scarcely a corner of the country 
so benighted where an elfort Avould be made to dispense 
with its use. 

The blackboards should be sufticient in number and in 
size to permit all the members of an ordinary class to 
work at the same time. The^^ should be about five feet 
wide, placed two feet above the floor, and should extend 
entirely around the walls of the rooms. A trough should 
always be placed beneath the board to catch the dust and 
to serve as a shelf for chalk and wipers. In all the 
designs given in this work, the blackboard surface has 



APPARATUS. 207 

been intended to occupy all the available space not taken 
up by doors and windows. The very best and cheapest 
blackboard surface is made by apjjlying the Eureka Lifjuid 
Slating to a thoroughly well made and smooth hard-fniished 
wall. Care should be taken to have a firm, substantial, 
smooth, and dry wall. The Rival Liquid Slating answers 
about the same purpose and is somewhat cheaper. In the 
Sui)plement will be found descriptions of blackboards and 
all the necessary accessories. 

Globes. — The next indispensable article of general 
apparatus is a globe. Without a globe a teacher cannot 
succeed in explaining to the comprehension of children 
the peculiarities of the earth upon which they live, or the 
ordinary phenomena resulting from the earth's shape and 
motions. With its aid he can accomplish all this, and can 
also clearly illustrate and define such geographical terms 
as children very seldom understand, and can correct errors 
which almost inevitably result from the exclusive use of 
maps. A comparatively small and cheap globe, with the 
full outline of the natural divisions of the earth, will 
answer in the absence of one of the larger and more 
expensive globes. 



APPARATUS FOR PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 

That facts must precede principles, and that the object 
of primary instruction should be mainly to awaken the 
attention and develop the powers of observation, is be- 
ginning to be fully recognized by modern educators. The 
old system of commencing the process of instruction by 
forcing children to learn mere abstractions, is well-nigh 
exploded. It is now considered by all who have given 
much attention to this subject, that it is much more im- 



208 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

portant that a child should be able to observe all that he 
sees, hears, or feels, than that he should be able to repeat 
by rote all the text-books used in the school. In culti- 
vating the powers of perception and observation, it is much 
more effectual to speak to the eye than to the ear ; and 
by children, experiments and ocular demonstrations are 
much more easily comprehended than any statement of 
principles or processes of logical reasoning. 

To carry out a system founded upon these principles, 
it will be necessary to change the course of instruction 
at present adopted for our primary classes, and to furnish 
our rooms with such tangible objects as will convey im- 
portant lessons, and furnish the proper foundation for a 
philosophical course of education. Nature has furnished 
these objects of sense in lavish profusion, and there is no 
district in the country too poor to have a bountiful supply 
of them. But here the labor of the teacher is indispensa- 
ble, for nature never betrays her secrets unless they are 
sought for, and the minds of children need directing until 
they are sufficiently developed to investigate and experi- 
ment without aid. 

We might, with propriety, denominate this system of 
instruction, "The education of the senses by means of 
lessons drawn from real objects." To make it at once 
intelligible and practical, we will examine it under the 
following heads, viz. : 

Form. — Almost the first thing that the child perceives 
and comprehends is difference in form, and the primary 
room should be furnished with a great quantity of appara- 
tus to illustrate these differences. Forms very dissimilar 
should first be taken, and the pupils should be gradually 
introduced to those more nearly alike, until they are able 
to accurately discriminate between those that have but 
very slight differences. They will always be interested 



APPARATUS. 209 

in these exercises, as the idea is taught through the sense 
of sight, and can be fully comprehended without any rea- 
soning process. Care should be taken to insure perfect 
accuracy of observation during every step of this process, 
and the scientific names should be given to each of the 
different forms. Apparatus for the teaching of form might 
consist, 1st, of blocks representing geometric solids ; 2d, 
different specimens of the animal kingdom ; 3d, the differ- 
ent forms of the stalks, leaves, and seeds of plants ; and 
4th, of the different forms assumed by minerals and 
crystals. 

The use of the geometric solids will introduce the 
facts and first principles of geometry ; and where that 
science is taken up as a study, the pupil will be already 
familiar with the terms used, and will look upon it as an 
old friend rather than a new acquaintance. The inspec- 
tion of the different specimens of the animal kingdom 
will excite an interest in the subject of natural his- 
tory, and the transition would be easy from an observa- 
tion of the forms of animals to that of their habits and 
peculiarities. The examination of the forms of plants, 
while exceedingly interesting in itself, and presenting a 
great variety of useful information, will lead directly to 
the study of botany, in which is enfolded the whole 
science of the vegetable kingdom. To understand the 
peculiar forms of minerals and crystals requires a higher 
development of the powers of observation and a more 
mature judgment ; but the subject can be easily taught 
if rightly presented, and the pupil will at once become 
interested in mineralogy. By this system the child, in 
time, will become perfectly familiar with all kinds of 
forms, and will be able to accurately describe the shape 
of anything that he sees. 

Size. — Nearly the same objects that are used to illus- 

14 



210 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

trate form may also be used to illustrate size, and the 
results will be nearly the same. At this stage there 
should be introduced the conventional standards of meas- 
ure, audi the pupils should be taught the tables of measure 
practically and inductively. The apparatus necessary 
would consist of an inch, foot, and yard rule for long 
measure, blocks representing a square inch and foot for 
square measure, cubical blocks for solid measure, and a 
variety of measures, like gill, pint, and quart cups, gal- 
lon, peck, and bushel measures, etc. 

The tables should then be taught in the following man- 
ner : An inch measure is put into the hands of a child, 
and he is required to draw a line upon the blackboard 
just as long as the measure, then to the end of this he is 
to add another inch, and rei)eat the process till he has 
drawn a line twelve inches in length. He is then in- 
structed to call this whole measure a foot ; and with a 
foot as a basis, he can then measure a yard, rod, etc. So 
with each one of the measures, take the least denomina- 
tion as a basis, and teach its name, use, and the number 
of times it is to be taken to make one of the next higher 
denomination before the name of that denomination is 
given. A box or barrel of clean sand should be furnished 
to experiment with in the measures of capacity. After 
becoming acquainted with the denominations and tables 
of measure in this practical manner, the jiupils should be 
encouraged to continually apply their knowledge in the 
measurement of everything within their reach. They 
might measure the dimensions of the school-house, the 
lengths of the neighboring fence rails and posts ; and in 
time they might measure the distance from the school- 
room to their respective homes, and the distance around 
farm lots, thus taking the first practical lessons in sur- 
veying. 



APPARATUS. 211 

Weight. — The difference in the weight of objects should 
next be considered. In this, as in form and size, almost 
every natural object, from the pebbles in the street to 
the most delicate organization, can be used for illustra- 
tions and experiments. Conventional weights and the 
tables should also be introduced, and a balance should be 
procured as an article of apparatus. The pupils should 
be taught the denominations inductively, as in the tables 
of measure ; and they should experiment, by weighing 
everything in the balance, and lifting it to judge of its 
weight, until the muscles would be educated to determine 
the weight of any object with a considerable degree of 
accuracy. 

Color. — The differences in the color of objects should 
receive early attention, and every school-room should be 
furnished with apparatus illustrating the primary colors, 
the intermediate shades, and the neutral tints. In all the 
seasons but winter, objects illustrating all the endless 
varieties of shades of color may be obtained from among 
leaves and flowers ; and by their aid not only would the 
senses be educated, but a taste for the beautiful would be 
cultivated. 

Order. — Order can be systematically taught by the 
use of objects already enumerated. Every variety of 
thing may be classified in regard to form, size, weight, 
and color, and each class may be put in its appropriate 
place. Exercises of this kind will cultivate habits of 
external order, and will lay the foundation of that sys- 
tematic arrangement of ideas indispensable to the highest 
progress in science and art. 

A child thus trained to habits of observation will see 
and hear much more than one educated in a different 
manner ; and when are added habits of critical investiga- 
tion into the origin, uses, relations, and causes of things^ 



212 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

there is little more to accomplish. He will then be able 
to enter into a scries of original and independent examin- 
ations, and he can see 

" Books in the running brooks, 
Sermons in stones, and good in everything." 

There is not an object in all art or nature but for him 
will have its lessons of wisdom. 

Cabinet. — A cabinet of curiosities and common things 
should be collected to form a never-failing reservoir of 
objects from which important lessons may be derived. 
This cabinet should contain specimens of the different 
metals, such as iron, lead, copper, tin, and zinc ; of the 
principal minerals which enter into the composition of the 
rocks, such as quartz, mica, hornblende, limestone, and 
gypsum ; of the most common chemical products, such as 
salt, saltpetre, copperas, alum, and soda ; of all the 
minerals in the neighborhood, such as pebbles, fragments 
of the rocks, clay, sand, and especially such rocks as con- 
tain fossils ; of the vegetable world, consisting of the 
leaves and flowers of all the plants and trees of the 
vicinity ; the different kinds of wood, both with and with- 
out bark ; the different grains, like corn, wheat, rye, oats, 
barley, and rice ; other articles of food, like sago, tapioca, 
Irish moss, capers, etc. ; and the different articles for 
household use, like flax, hemp, cotton, gums, spices, and 
fruits ; of the products of the sea, such as shells, sponges, 
coral, whalebone, and a great variety of other articles ; 
of the most common animal products, such as wool, hair, 
wax, bones, ivory, etc. ; and of manufactured articles, 
as silk, linen and cotton fabrics, leather, pa})er, parch- 
ment, crockery, porcelain and glass ware, and, indeed, 
everything used in the domestic arts and in common 
household operations. 



APPARATUS. 21 3 

The lessons to be derived from the specimens of the 
metals and minerals might include an examination of their 
peculiar properties and qualities: how the members of the 
diiferent classes differ from each other ; where they are 
obtained, the process of obtaining them, and the agents 
necessary to effect this object ; their relative value, and 
their several uses in the economy of the world and in* 
science and art. The examination of vegetable and 
animal products would include the peculiarities of organi- 
zation, the conditions of life and growth, the geographical 
distribution of plants and animals, their origin and history, 
a description of the processes of both nature and art in 
collecting and preparing them, and their uses to the world. 
The lessons to be derived from manufactured goods would 
lead to the examination of still higher subjects, and would 
include much of geography, history, mechanics, chemistry, 
and the like. It will be seen that in every school there 
can be collected a cabinet of this kind at little or no 
expense, which will furnish an inexhaustible fund of in- 
formation, requiring only an intelligent teacher to eluci- 
date and make it available. 

Slates. — Besides the articles which have here been 
enumerated, each pupil in a primary room should be 
provided with a slate. This will afford unfailing amuse- 
ment, and the pupil, if properly instructed, can acquire 
by its aid the first rudiments of drawing. There is 
scarcely an exercise in the school in which it cannot be 
used to advantage, and it becomes a source of great relief 
to a child from the wearisome monotony of a school day. 
Slates with attachments containing drawing and writing 
lessons have lately been prepared, and are most excellent 
for use in primary rooms. It is very desirable that slates 
should be supplied with rubber corners, to prevent noise 
and scratching of desks. 

14 



214 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

Paper slates. — In many respects the paper slates 
lately introduced into our schools are a great improve- 
ment. They are light, noiseless, and not easily broken. 
They can be shut up and carried inside of a book, and in 
almost every particular they are more convenient than 
the stone slate. It is also claimed for them that they are 
tolerably durable and comparatively cheap. 

Playthings. — The primary room should also be sup- 
})lied Avith a variety of articles properly termed "play- 
things." These might consist of dissected maps, objects 
for counting, blocks, and a great variety of things of like 
character. Blocks four inches long, two inches wide, and 
one inch thick, would perhaps be the most convenient of 
any for the building of houses and the like. All these 
should be arranged in a proper place, and the little chil- 
dren should be permitted to use them when tired of sit- 
ting still, or when not engaged in specific school duties. 
There is scarcely anything that the intelligent teacher 
may not make available to amuse, interest, and instruct 
his pupils. 

Cards. — A great variety of cards are now prepared 
for the use of schools, and many of them are valuable. 
The alphabet, the elementary sounds of the language, and 
the elements of reading may be profitably taught by the 
use of cards. The classification of science and of natural 
history may also be taught in a similar manner, and in 
nearly every branch of instruction cards may be made 
useful. 

Pictures. — In objective teaching, when the object it- 
self cannot be obtained, pictures are indispensable. They 
convey instruction through the e^^e as well as the ear. 
Geographical and historical information especially can be 
illustrated and made instructive by the use of well- 
selected pictures. 



APPAKATUS. 215 

The appearance of natural scenery, such as mountains, 
glaciers, rocky ravines, volcanoes, cataracts, tropical, 
fruits, and a great number of other things of like character, 
can be understood better through pictorial illustrations 
than through elaborate descriptions. Pictures should be 
chosen with care, and such only taken for use as repre- 
sent something important. In the study of natural history 
pictures become indispensable, for scarcely any idea of 
the peculiar shape and appearance of animals can be 
gained from mere description. In selecting pictures for 
schools, avoid the coarse, cheap lithographs of the shops, 
for they will have a tendency to deprave taste rather 
than elevate it. 

Stereoscopic views. — A series of stereoscopic views 
would be of the greatest value in teaching many branches 
now imperfectly taught or entirely neglected. A few 
characteristic views of the natural features of each country, 
of works of art, and of the costumes of the people, would 
give more accurate and vivid geographical knowledge 
than can be obtained from any verbal description. The 
principles of architecture and of natural science can be 
illustrated in the same manner, and the driest of studies 
can be made interesting. 

Numerical frame. — A small frame, known as the 
"numerical frame," consisting of ten rows of little balls, 
and ten balls in each row, strung upon wires, on which 
they move easily, is a valuable auxiliary to the teacher 
in giving instruction in the first principles of numbers. 
The simple rules of arithmetic, and many things of a more 
complicated character, can be readily illustrated by it, 
and the whole class can be instructed at once. 



216 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



SPECIAL apparatus- 
Maps. — Every school-room should be supplied with a 
map of the town, county, and State in which it is situated, 
as well as with the maps representing the grand divis- 
ions of the globe. The first real knowledge of geography 
is derived from those objects in nature which arc known 
to the pupil, and this is followed by making a map of this 
known portion of the earth. From the special map the 
pupil becomes familiar with maps in general, and is able 
to understand the relative position of places. For use in 
the school-room, outline maps, in which pliysical features 
are represented by color, and political divisions by faint 
outlines, are much to be preferred to those that contain 
names in full. Maps or charts upon which is given a map 
and a picture of each of the natural divisions of land and 
water, are of great value in primary schools. 

Charts. — Variety is rest. The active-minded pupil 
finds relief from study, not in blank idleness, but in seeing 
and thinking about something else, something different 
from the arithmetic or grammar of which he is weary. As 
affording the best avaihible material for turning this ne- 
cessary diversion of mind into recreative stud}'', charts 
make the most approi)riate as well as most useful decora- 
tions that can be introduced into the school-room. They 
relieve the dead blankness of naked walls, and instruct 
while they adorn. Silent yet entertaining, they are the 
most efficient helps that the teacher can call around him. 
Atfording legitimate relief from study, they prevent the 
pupil's activity from overflowing into illegitimate courses, 
as mischief ; thus they are aids to discii)line as well as 



APPARATUS. 217 

instructors. No room is complete as a school-room with- 
out them. 

Philosophical apparatus. — Much costly apparatus 
has been prepared for illustrating principles of natural 
philosophy, which may be very good in its way ; but from 
its costliness is beyond the reach of country school- 
districts. Almost every necessary experiment can be 
performed with articles that the teacher can procure at 
little or no expense. For example, the mechanical 
powers can be illustrated by such machinery as can 
be obtained at any farm-house. The lever, the com- 
pound lever, the pulley, the wheel and axle, the in- 
clined plane, the wedge and the screw, are all easily 
obtained. The common steelyard and a couple of pul- 
ley-blocks, a wheel or two from an old clock and a 
wooden screw, which can be procured at any carpenter's 
shop, are all that are really necessary for this purpose. 
Hydrostatics and hydraulics can also be illustrated by 
apparatus equally simple. A few tin tubes or bits of lead 
pipe, and vessels of wood or tin will do, if the teacher 
has zeal and a little genius. We have not space for all 
the details of the use of common things in the illustration 
of principles ; but will close by repeating that all neces- 
sary experiments can be made by the use of apparatus 
that is cheap and within the reach of all. 

Miscellaneous. — The following articles would be found 
useful and convenient : a tellurian to illustrate the revolu- 
tions of the earth and its relation to the sun and moon, 
the changes of the seasons, the phenomena of day and 
night, the ebb and flow of the tides ; a magnet and small 
galvanic battery, to illustrate magnetism and electricity ; 
and an orrery to show the relative size of each of the 
planets in the solar system, the periods of their revolution, 
and their respective distances from the sun. A few lenses 



218 



OUIl BOIIOOL-IIOUSKS. 



and luiiwors, plane, concave, and convex, and a prism, 
Avliicli can })e procnred at liKle cost, are desirable to as- 
sist in simplilying tlie abstruse subject of optics. 

The scliool should always be suj)plie(l with fixtures to 
make (he apparatus available, and to j)reserve it from 
injury. Hooks should be placed upon the walls, upon 
which maj)S and cliarls may be susj)ende(l, and pointers 
should be provided for recitations upon ma})S and black- 
boards. A closet should be ])rovided for j)reserving the 
a})paratus when not in use. 




CHAPTER X. 




-Ai.-.J?fe*S->-»: 



o[;T-Ju;rLDTxos. 

The ffoneral form and location of all the out-build inprs 
nccos.sary to a school have already heen described, and 
nothing more need be added 
in regard to the porch, wood- 
house, etc. Privies have 
also been briefly noticed, 
but, in consequence of a gen- 
eral apathy upon this sub- 
ject, we devote this entire 
chapter to the further con- ^ 
sideration of their character, 
location, and arrangement. F\g. so. 

We are fully persuaded that, in consequence of a culpable 
nc;glect in this direction, all efforts for the improvement 
of the social and moral condition of our schools are, in a 
great measure, neutralized, and that from the same source 
arises much of the disinclination that parents have to 
sending their children to the public schools. 

In some districts, even at the present day, there is no 
privy ! The following extract from the annual report of 
Hon. John C. Spencer, Superintendent of the Common 
Schools of New York, to the Legislature, in 1840, very 
forcibly shows the folly, wickedness, and brutality of this 
practice : 

" A man who should build a good dwelling-house, but 
provide no place for retirement when performing the 
most private offices of nature, would be thought to give 



220 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

the clearest evidence of a coarse and brutal mind. Yet 
respectable parents allow their children to go to a school 
where this is the case, and where the evil is greatly 
aggravated hj the fact that numbers of both sexes are 
collected, and that, too, at an age of extreme levity, and 
when the youthful mind is prone to the indulgence of a 
prurient imagination. Says one of the school visitors, 
' In most cases in this town the scholars, male and female, 
are turned promiscuously and simultaneously into the 
public highway, without the shelter of so much as a stump 
for a covert to the calls of nature. The baneful effects of 
this barbarous custom on the young and pliant sensibili- 
ties are truly lamentable.' " 

The Superintendent of the Common Schools of Con- 
necticut, in 1850, holds ihQ following language : " An 
appalling chapter might be written on the evils, the 
almost inevitable results of neglecting to provide these 
indispensable ajDpendages to school-houses in our State. 
Who can duly estimate the final consequences of the first 
shock given to female delicacy from the necessary expos- 
ure to which the girls in the public schools are inevitably 
subjected ; and what must be the legitimate results of 
these frequent exposures during the school-going years 
of 3'outh ? What quenchless fires of passion have been 
kindled within the bosoms of the young of both sexes by 
these exposures ; fires that have raged to the consuming 
of personal happiness, to the prevention of scholastic 
improvement, and to the destruction of personal charac- 
ter ? Again, what disgust has been created in both sexes 
by not having the appropriate retirements which nature 
imperiousl}^ demands? And, finally, may not the disin- 
clination, the aversion of large numbers of families, of 
mothers especially, to sending their daughters to the 
public schools, have been created by the sufferings they 



OUT-BUILDINGS. 221 

themselves have endured from the above cause ; and an 
unwillingness to subject the delicacy of their daughters 
to the obnoxious trial ?" 

The evils here so vividly and truthfully pointed out are 
not confined to the districts where no privies are built, 
but they apply in an almost equal degree to country dis- 
tricts where there is only one small, mere apology for a 
priv}^ In a majority of cases, a slight building, made 
of rough boards, is erected, of such a character that it 
answers no purpose of privacy, and is only useful as a 
very poor and inadequate screen. It is usually situated 
directly upon the highway, in close proximity to the 
school-house, and is completely exposed to public ob- 
servation. Only one building is furnished for the accom- 
modation of the two sexes, so that there can be no surety 
that the delicacy of young girls will not be outraged by 
the contact of grossness and brutality. Again, it is usu- 
ally built with a very shallow vault, with no conveniences 
and no guards against abuses, and it soon becomes the most 
offensive and disgusting object in itself that it is possible 
to conceive, and a positive nuisance to the school and 
neighborhood. We believe that the picture here given of 
the condition of our country districts, and the evils result- 
ing from that condition, are not overdrawn, and that they 
are of such a character as to demand immediate attention. 

In arranging privies for a school, the following princi- 
ples should always be observed. They should be com- 
modious, and constructed so as to avoid offensive odors. 
They should be placed at a sufficient distance, * so that 
they could never become offensive to the school. They 
should be screened from public observation. It will be 
seen at once that a school-lot is necessary to afford a 
decent location for a privy. As long as school-buildings 
are erected in the street, or upon a lot large enough to 



222 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



conlaiii only the scliool-lionsc, it will be impossible to bring 
about rclbrin. There can be no place protected from ob- 
servation, or where the building itself will not constantly 
be liable to abuses. In a lot containing an acre, the 
school-house should be ])laced in its centre, and a high, 
tight board fence should extend from the centre of the 
rear of the building to the farther edge of the lot, divid- 
ing the rear yard into two parts. The privies shonld 
be situated near the centre of the back part of the re- 



imiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiimiMiiiiiiiii" y 

:lffi3"'3;|!i!ifttisS 




l,-^.^,x-Xf 



Fiji. UO. 



spective yards, carefully guarded by screens of wood, or by 
living hedge. They should bo supplied with large, well- 
stoned vaults, at least six feet deep. It possible, a drain 
should lead from the vaidt to a distance, and a stream 
of running water should be permitted to flow through it. 
The buildings themselves shonld be well plastered and 
painted, and linished in the same general style of architec- 
ture as the school-house. The seats shonld be provided 
with lids hung with butts, and all the walls should be left 
hollow, opening into a ventilating chimney above to carry 
otf the gases. The plaster should be Icl't very rough, and a 



OUT-JilJIIJHNOS. 



223 



9.;;mM^ 



heavy coat of coarse sand should be mixed with the paint 
to render scribbling and obscene figures impossible. 

Great care should be taken to so construct the seats 
that defilement becomes almost impossible. In this mat- 
ter, however, reference need only be made to that pro- 
vided for boys, because girls' privies are seldom abused 
in this way. Besides the lids hung with butts, which 
should be placed in all privies, in that of the boys a 
strong brace of plank should be firmly aflixed to the 
frame of the building, so that the covers cannot be opened 
beyond an angle of sixty degrees, thus rendering it im- 
possible to stand upon the seat. Fig. 91. ^^^^^ 
represents a privy suitable for the girls' 
yard. It consists of one apartment, fur- 
nished with the requi.^ite number of seats. 
The size ^f the building must depend 
u[jon the size of the school. This build- 
ing should be neatly finished and painted. 

The privy for the boys is more troublesome. The 
diflicult}^ of keeping them clean is well known to every 
teacher. We apprehend that this trouble arises princi- 
pally from the fact that urinals are not provided, and 
consequently the seats are often wet, and thus rendered 
unfit to sit upon. Fig. 92 ^^^.^^j^AJ^^^yy^^^^^^ 
represents a privy for boys, 
arranged to guard against 
this evil. It is fourteen 
feet by ten feet, and divided 
into two apartments by a 
close partition. The part A 
is supplied with seats sepa- 
rated by partitions ; and the part B with a trough, divided 
into stalls by partitions, in a manner similar to A. This 
arrangement is fiuch that there cannot be the sbVhtest 



FiL'. 01. 



\nr.\-'- ; -ir : 'i , 



f^-^-^-^-^ 



im 



Fig. 92. 



224 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

excuse for any abuse of any part of the building, and 
teachers would have very little difficulty in keeping it 
scrupulously neat, and free from every kind of defilement 
and injury. 

Locks should be placed upon all the doors of privies, 
so that they cannot be entered except during hours when 
the teacher can have them under his own personal super- 
vision. When privies are thus perfectly constructed, the 
teacher should always be held responsible for keeping 
them in good order. He can do this very easily by per- 
sonally inspecting the buildings every day, and promptly 
noticing the very first violation of the rules of decency. 
Thus the teacher may accomplish a great good, by teach- 
ing habits of decency and modesty, and by repressing all 
exhibitions of grossness. He may also inculcate impor- 
tant hygienic laws in this connection, which will be of the 
greatest importance to the pupil through life. It is the 
custom of many excellent teachers, principals of some of 
our most noted union schools, to frequently look into the 
privy while the boys are in it, thus rendering the abuse 
very difficult, and its detection almost certain. In this 
way all the out-buildings of the school are kept as fastidi- 
ously neat as those connected with our best dwellings. 
Let all interested in schools contrast such a state of things 
with that usually found in country districts, and decide 
whether the advantages gained would not outweigh the 
expense incurred. 



CHAPTER XI. 



ARRANGING AND ORNAMENTING GROUNDS. 



,^^ 




Fig. m. 



Ample school-grounds are needed for a great variety 
of purposes ; and when the philosophy of instruction shall 

be fully understood, large , ^. 

3'ards will be considered \^^ 
indispensable as affording ^ 
opportunities for physical i 
exercise, and for displaying # ^^:^'^ 
the beauties of nature. Phy- ^ ^ 
sical education is now too j ^ ^ 
often neglected, and, indeed, ^^,^ 
the circumstances and sur- 
roundings of the majority 
of our schools are such that 
a regular course of physical discipline is impossible. The 
necessity and importance of exercise are forcibly ex- 
pressed in the following extract from the Family Gym- 
nasium, by Dr. Trail : 

"It is as natural for a child to exercise as to breathe. 
When unrestrained, nearly all children are distinguished 
for restless activity. Nature bids them exercise, and they 
obey the mandate, often in spite of ignorant parents, 
nurses, and teachers, who scold and whip them for rest- 
lessness. Teachers are often more disposed to consult 
their own convenience than to study the laws of nature 
as applicable to their young charge ; and, by dint of 
praising quietness and blaming activity, the poor child's 

15 



226 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES, 

nature is smothered ; and pale cheeks, diminutive muscu- 
lar development, weakness, dyspepsia, consumption, and 
death are the fruits of the oft-repeated command, ' Keep 
quiet.' 

" Exercise is as essential to development as air is to life. 
No person can acquire a large, compact, muscular organi- 
zation without it. 

" ' But you would not have girls run and romp over hill 
and dale, and laugh boisterously, like boys?' Let us ex- 
amine the subject, and see what Nature, the great teacher, 
will say concerning it. Do young female animals frisk, 
jump, and play like males ? and do little girls instinct- 
ively laugh loudly, and run and play like boys ? If so, 
we may safely infer that Nature has established the same 
general law of exercise — not for animals merely, but for 
both sexes of the human race. 

" Rousseau observes : ' If you wish to develop the mind 
of a pupil, develop the power which mind has to govern — 
exercise his body, make him healthy and strong, that you 
may make him prudent and reasonable.' 

"Systematic gymnastic exercises, which give energy 
and precision to muscular movements, are not only useful 
in the development of bodily vigor, but are also efficient 
auxiliaries in mental education by inducing habits of 
order, exactness, and directness in the mental opera- 
tions." 

To render this systematic exercise possible, there must 
be considerable space ; and it will be seen that this space 
is not designed for mere amusements, but in reality be- 
comes one of the most important educational auxiliaries. 
The ground devoted to play and exercise should be free 
from obstructions, and hence trees, flower-beds, etc., would 
be out of place in that portion of the school-yard. Differ- 
ent kinds of gymnastic apparatus should be provided for 



ARRANGING AND ORNAMENTING GROUNDS. 227 

these yards, so as to give variety to exercise, and to de- 
velop every muscle of the body. Teachers should under- 
stand the science and art of physical development, so as 
to be able to encourage the adoption of such plays as will 
be most likely to secure the desired result. 

Having made the best possible disposition of the school- 
buildings, and secured the desired open spaces for play- 
grounds, the subject next to consider is that of "orna- 
ment." While answering strictly utilitarian purposes, 
the whole grounds may be so arranged as to become 
educational influences ; first, by being attractive to the 
pupils ; second, by affording them constant pleasure dur- 
ing their school-days ; and third, by cultivating in them 
a taste for the beautiful in nature. For the purposes of 
ornament, trees are at once the most beautiful and the 
most enduring. They can be procured at a very trifling 
cost, wherever school-houses are built, and, unlike most 
of things connected with schools, they increase in value and 
beauty each successive year, nature assuming the cost, 
and lavishing upon them her rarest beauties of color and 
form. A. J. Downing, the great lover of nature, in his 
work upon "Landscape G-ardening," thus speaks of trees, 
and of their influence upon the mind : 

"A tree, undoubtedly, is one of the most beautiful 
objects in nature. Airy and delicate in its youth, luxuri- 
ant and majestic in its prime, venerable and picturesque 
in its old age, it constitutes in its various forms, sizes, and 
developments, the greatest charm and beauty of the earth 
in all countries. The most varied outline of surface, the 
finest combination of picturesque materials, the stateliest 
country house would be comparatively tame and spiritless 
without the inimitable accompaniment of foliage. Let 
those who have passed their whole lives in a richly-wooded 
country — whose daily visions are of deep, leafy glens, 



228 onii sciiooL-iionsKS. 

forest-clad liills, ;iii(l plains luxuriantly slnulcd -traii8|)ort 
thomselvi's for a, nionicnl to tlu^ (h^scrt, wlH'r(^ but a few 
stunlcd l)nsli(>s i-aisc (licir licjids above tlie earth ; or to 
those wild steppes wlierc^ (he eye wanders in vain for 
some 'leafy i2;aruiture' — where the suu strikes down with 
j)ar('hiu[2; heat, or tlie wind sweeps over with unl)roken 
fury, and (liey may, perhaps, eslinialc, by conli'ast, (heir 
beauty jiiid vahic. 

" Wood, ill its many shapes, is then one of the i;i'eatest 
sources of interest and character in landsejipes. V' ariety, 
which we need scarcely iillnde (o ;is a ferlile source of 
bcjiuty, is crcMlcd in a woiuUM'ful deii;ree by a natural 
ju'i-anjACMueid of trees. To a pile of bnildini2;s, or even of 
ruins, to a i>;rouj) of rocks or animals, Ihey coniuuinicate 
uew lite aud sj)irit, by their irrei»nhir outlines, which by 
partially concealing; sonu' portions, and Ihrowinii' others 
into stroni^'cr li.i;ht, contribute ji;reatly to produce intricacy 
.and vari(>ty, and conliM-an (Expression which, without these 
latter <pialities, nu^hl, in ;i i;-r(>at uunisure, be wautinii,-. 
J>y shuttiuii; out sonu^ |)Mrls and inclosinti; others, they 
divide (he exieni (Mnbi';ic(Ml by (he (\V(e into a hundred 
dilferiMd landscapes, inslead of one tame scene boundml 
by (he horizon. 

"The dilferenl seasons of (he year, (oo. are inseparably 
coniKM'led in our minds with (lu* elVecls pi'oduced by (hem 
on woodland scciumt. Sprinsi; is joyous aud enliveniuL;- 
to us, as nature IIumi puis on her fresh livery of oreen, 
and (he trees bud and blossom wi(h a renewed beauty 
that s[)eaks wi(h a mult^ and ^ende eloiiuence (o (he 
lieart. In sununer (hey olVer us a gra(e(ul shelter under 
(heir umbra<j;i>ous arms aud leafy branches, aud whisper 
uuwritleu nuisic (o (he passing breeze. In autuuui we 
feel a ineUuicholy thoughd'ulness as 

* We stjiiid among the falling leave!?,' 



AIM{AN(MN(; AND OIIN A M KNTI N(J (liaXINDH. 229 

jirid ^^',\:/,(\ upon (licir dyiii^ ii;l()ri('.s. y\ii(l in wiii(,(;r w(^ s(!« 
in (li(5in I.Ik! silc.iil, rcsi of iiiiliii'c, iuid behold in iJicir Ic;),!"- 
l(\ss sprays and HC(!inin«i,ly (hisul limbs an annual lyjx; of 
tli;i,( (\(',v.\HW in3's(,(;i'y -the, <l('!illd(;ss sI(m;[) of all b(Mn^'. 

" l»y Lli(^ judicious cniploynKMil of Inu^s, wo nniy vAYavX 
the pjroatest alterations :i,n<i improvc^iiKuds within the 
s('-()p(! of hindscapo <;:ii,rd(Hiin,t2;. iJuiidint^s whicJi ;m-(! lame, 
insipid, oi' even mean in jippciiiranee, may be made inter- 
esting-, jirul (!ven })i(;tures(ju(!, by n, |)rop(;r disposition of 
trees. I<]dilie(;s, or parts of th(;m, that iii'e unsightly, or 
which it is desirable [)artly or wholly to eoiux^al, can 
readily Ix; hidden or improvcMJ by wood ; and walks and 
roiuls, whic^li otln^'wise would be but simph; ways of 
ii,|)[»roa(Oi from om; poird; to another, 5ir(i, by an (de^;aut 
;M'r;ui^(un(!iit of tribes on their inar^^in, oradjac(;nt to them, 
made llie most in((;i"(!stinM; ;ind |)l(!asinp; portions of the 
resid(!nce." 

'{'here is an oj)portunity lor the exercise of ;i ji,r(!at 
diversity of tastes, both in sehscting and in ar-ran^in^ 
tr(!es lor ornamenting school-grounds. In s(d(!(;ting, tfu! 
Ibliowing principles should ))e tjikcui as guides : First, 
such tre(!S shoidd ho chos(!n 5is will harmoni/(! with the 
g(!neral (eatur(\s of tin; landscape!. For (ixainph; : in a 
hilly or V(!ry brok(^n r(;gion tlu! tidl, spii'y-to|)ped treses, 
like the pine, (ii', spruc(!, and hendock, would be in k(!ep- 
ing with the; mituraJ scen(;ry, but upon a wide;, ext(!nded 
plain, they would app(!ar coini)aratively mean and incon- 
gnious. The rourul-toj)ped and synim(!trical trees, like 
th(; oak, ma,pl(!, and becsch, arcs much bett(!r ada[)ted to 
\hv. (juiet Kcenery of a level i-(!gion than to the irr(!gular 
outlines of a rough, mountainous surfacM!. Second, the 
dillerc^nt varieties of trees s(dect(;d should harmonize with 
each other. Although a vaiiedy is always desirable, yet 
tlie dineresnt kinds chosen loi" any given s()ot or group 



230 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



€ 



should be somewhat similar in shape, so as not to present 
too great a contrast. For example, a group consisting of 
a maple, beech, and oak would be harmonious, while one 
consisting of a Lombardy poplar, weeping-willow, and fir 
would be incongruous. 

For different purposes, also, different trees are to be 
chosen. Some are selected to border an avenue or path, 
©- ^-^.... and some for mere shade ; some 
# are to be placed singly, and 
^ some disposed in groups ; and 
i different varieties of trees are 
^ particularly adapted to each 
ease. For single trees, where 
there is to be left sufficient space 
for their entire expansion, in a 
level or moderately hilly region, 
there is no tree in grace or 
beaut}'^ can surpass the drooping 
elm. The maple is a noble tree, 

-'^--^ jiSiJ and is admirably adapted for 

either a situation as a single tree, 
or as a member of a group. The oak and chestnut are 
among the largest and noblest of all our trees, and either 
may be taken for the central object of a group. The 
weeping-willow appears best as a single tree, and in a 
level tract of countr3^ The spruce, hemlock, ash, and 
beech, from our common forests, all make beautiful shade 
trees. Among other shade trees that can be easily pro- 
cured in some sections of the country are the horse- 
chestnut, locust, and hickory, the magnolia and cotton- 
wood of the Southern States, and the buckeye and black 
walnut of the West. The soft maple is highly valued as 
an ornamental tree, on account of its red blossoms of early 
spring, its dense green foliage in summer, and its beautiful 




ARRANGING AND ORNAMENTING GROUNDS. 231 

dress of deep crimson after the first frost of autumn. To 
conclude, there is scarcely a tree of our forests that would 
not become a beautiful ornament, if transplanted and 
nurtured with proper care. 

The arrangement of trees should be the subject of 
careful study. They are usually set out in straight rows, 
without any regard to beauty of grouping, and effecting 
no result except that of furnishing shade. The stiff for- 
mality of their position goes far to destroy the effect of 
their beautiful outlines, and thus the most important 
objects of their culture are lost. When we bring into 
immediate contrast the stateliness and formality of an 
estate planted with trees in straight rows, with a 
natural landscape, with trees and groves promiscu- 
ously scattered over it, we can at once appreciate the 
immeasurabty superior beauty of the latter scene over the 
former. 

Trees should be planted singly or in groups. Single 
trees should be such as have a graceful and beautiful out- 
line, and convey to the mind the feeling of completeness, 
as the drooping elm, weeping-willow, and horse-chestnut. 
Groups may consist of several kinds of trees, that are 
harmonious in character, planted so closely together that 
at a little distance they have the appearance of a single 
object. They should always be composed of one principal 
tree, larger and taller than the rest, with the others 
grouped around it as subordinates. 

These single trees and groups should be so disposed 
about the school premises as not to interfere with the 
play-grounds, and at the same time to produce as great a 
variety as possible in the appearance of the landscape. If 
the situation is a fine one, openings should be left to afford 
views of distant objects, such as a lake, river, or moun- 
tain, all of which objects will appear much more beautiful 



232 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

seen through a vista, bounded by the shifting foliage and 
waving branches of the trees. 

Shrubs that are commonly used for hedges should also 
be thickly planted in gracefully curved lines, in such a 
manner as to completely screen the approach to the out- 
buildings, and to cover up such portions of the buildings 
as should not be exposed to public gaze. Flowers might 
also be cultivated to a limited extent, but, as a general 
thing, they would not receive sufficient attention in our 
country districts to insure their successful culture. 

School-grounds arranged in this manner would become 
great powers of refinement and important influences for 
good. When trees are once planted, the winds, the sun, 
and the rains carefully and assiduously nurture them, 
supplying their ever}' want, and converting their puny 
stalks into giant forms, until 

" They stand massy, and tall, and dark, 
Fit shrine for humble worshipper to hold 
Communion with his Maker." 

The first school impressions of childhood would be 
associated with their graceful outlines, the wnving of their 
branches, and the struggling of light down through green 
leaves. Lessons of wisdom and beauty, which would 
endure forever, could be continually gathered from their 
trunks, their leaves, and their blossoms. The men that 
planted them would perform a work directly aiding in the 
elevation of humanity, and long after their forms have 
mouldered in the dust, whole generations of children would 
" rise up and call them blessed." 



CHAPTER XII. 



ARCHITECTURE AN EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE, 




Ordinary use is not the only value of buildings. They 
may be so constructed as to appeal to the higher senti- 
ments, and render important aid in develop- 
ing the better and finer feelings of our 
nature. This is the proper province of 
architecture, and the work of the architect 
is to so fashion our buildings and arrange 
their details, that while they answer the 
purposes of their erection, they may, at the 
same time, satisfy that love of the beautiful, 
the symmetrical, and the harmonious. 

In this country too little attention has 
yet been given to those things which elevate 
and refine. The entire energies of our peo- 
ple were early and exclusively devoted to 
subduing the wilderness and providing the necessaries of 
life. They could bestow no time on pursuits which did 
not directly conduce to the simplest ends of human exist- 
ence. Consequently, their descendants are a prompt, 
resolute, and vigorous race. But the arts of refinement 
which were, at first, through absolute necessity, neglected, 
are now habitually despised or disregarded. No people 
on earth who have attained to an equal degree of intel- 
lectual and moral culture, evince so little taste and refine- 
ment. 



Fig. 95. 



234 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

We begin, however, to discern the dawning of a better 
day. We begin to feel that there are wants in our nature 
that are not to be satisfied by mere material appliances. 
We begin to appreciate the beautiful, and its influence in 
developing our higher powers. P]vidences of this change 
of public sentiment ma}' be found in the attention now 
paid to art, in the patronage bestowed upon artists, and 
in the improvement of the architecture of public buildings 
and private residences in many parts of the country. The 
results of this improved sentiment react upon the com- 
munity, softening the sharp features of our national char- 
acter, multiplying those little amenities which give grace, 
beauty, and diguit}' to our life, and even aiding to develop 
the Christian virtues of faith and charity. 

Numerous and potent are the influences furnished by 
literature for the cultivation of the taste ; but impressions 
more vivid and lasting may be made by the presentation 
to the senses of sublime or beautiful objects, such as 
natural scener}^ landscape improved by art, and the best 
productions of sculpture, painting, and architecture. 

Of the various influences which tend to mature and 
refine the taste, we have occasion, in this work, to refer 
only to those of architecture. The importance and neces- 
sity of this art to the great work of education 
we shall endeavor to show. 

Architecture, primarily, deals only with 
forms which address the eye. It embodies 
ideas of proportion, symmetry, variety, har- 
mony, and unity. 

By Proportion is meant that due relation 

which should exist between the different dimen- 

Fig. 96. sions of a building, in order to convey the idea 

of correctness. We frequently see buildings in which 

this principle is violated, and are pained at the want of 




AECHITECTURE AN EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE. 235 

taste so prominently displayed. Buildings too long for 
their height, too high for their length, or too wide for 
either, appear to be the "rule," rather than the "excep- 
tion j" yet a well-proportioned structure is immediately 
and. almost universall}'' recognized as such, and cannot 
fail to afford general satisfaction and delight. 

Symmetry requires a proper balance of parts. The 
regular placing of doors and windows, and the disposal of 
all the details, so that none shall seem out of place, are in 
obedience to this principle. 

Variety is the opposite of monotony, and would induce 
us to relieve blank walls in some manner, and to break up 
long horizontal lines, so as to produce an agreeable effect, 
like that made by a diversified landscape, or a number of 
views in nature, each differing from the other. This would 
lead us also to obviate sameness in a range of buildings, 
and, within certain limits, to give diversity to details. It 
would forbid the erection of those vast square or oblong 
piles of brick and mortar, which now so frequently bur- 
den, without adorning, the face of the earth. 

Harmony may be defined as the limit of variety. It is 
that peculiar relation which all the parts should have to 
each other, producing in the mind a sense of completeness 
and adaptation. It allows no incongruities, and indulges 
in no conceits. Harmony in architecture, as in music, so 
arranges and blends the different parts, that each seems an 
indispensable element of a perfect whole. 

Unity refers to the evident design which pervades the 
structure ; the one idea, which has not only harmonized 
the parts with each other, but adapted the whole to its 
uses. In accordance with this principle, while all the 
other laws of taste in architecture should be observed, 
they should be subordinated to the object of the con- 
struction. 




236 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. ^ 

As the mind becomes familiar with beautiful objects, 
and with the laws of beauty, its sensibility to moral excel- 
lence is cultivated, the manners are conformed to 
the principles of harmony, and the effects pro- 
duced upon the whole man are of the most bene- 
ficial and lasting character. The influence ascribed 
by Plato, in his Republic, to a musical education, 
Fig. 97. may be predicated with equal truth of a judicious 
culture in this department of art. It is essential, he says, 
"because it makes rhythm and harmony to settle deeply 
in the inner soul, and take strong hold of it, carrying 
with them comeliness, and making a man comely-minded. 
Also, because one so nurtured will have the quickest per- 
ception of all faults and imperfections in art or nature, 
and, regarding them with just aversion, will admire and 
love the beautiful. This he will receive with joy into his 
soul, will feed on it, and assimilate his own nature to its 
beauty, will learn to censure and hate deformity, even in 
early youth, while yet incapable of under standAng the reason 
why, and when the reason comes, will embrace it gladly, 
as a familiar thing." 

In those countries where architecture has reached its 
highest development, taste and refinement exert their 
greatest influence. As an instance of the refining effect of 
beautiful objects, the fact might be mentioned that, in 
many of the old countries, sculptured decorations in 
architecture have remained for ages uninjured, save by 
the elements ; and that even after the edifices they once 
adorned have fallen into ruin, veneration seems to have 
shielded these trophies of art from profanation. In our 
more logical and practical communities, the destructive 
passion would be restrained by no such sentiment ; and 
not twent3"-four hours would elapse after an old building 
of celebrity had been abandoned, before fragments would 



ARCHITECTURE AN EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE. 237 

be chipped off for mementoes, or pounded to pieces, to 
satisfy the analytical spirit of some ruthless traveller. 
Beauty of form, however, seems, in some measure, to 
afford protection. An old or mean-looking building, 
deserted or unoccupied, is a target for boys, and even for 
children of a larger growth ; and every one feels an 
instinctive desire to rid the earth of such deformity. But 
a complete and beautiful structure generally enjoys a 
longer, if not an entire, exemption from injury. When 
taste is really and universally cultivated, there will be no 
danger of the wanton desecration of beautiful objects. 

In the erection of every school-house particular care 
should be taken to observe the rules of taste as regards 
form. In our country districts, where a small 
and plain building only is demanded, we need to 
consider proportion and symmetry alone ; the 
other principles of architecture applying chiefly 
to larger and more pretending structures. If ^'"' ^** 
this is done, if our school-houses all conform to these 
two fundamental laws, they cannot fail to become strong 
educational influences. The advantages of obeying the 
principles of architecture in the construction of school- 
houses may be summed up in a few words : 

1. If the building is an object of beauty, the very sight 
of it inspires emotions of pleasure. 

2. It adorns and beautifies the landscape of which it 
forms a part. 

3. It becomes an attractive place to children, and does 
not repel them by its deformity. 

4. It practically teaches ideas of proportion and sym- 
metry, and new and exalted conceptions of beauty of form. 

5. It throws over property the shield of beauty, and so 
checks, and finally eradicates the rudeness which is stimu- 
lated by deformity. 



238 



OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 



6. It forms one of those influences which have most 
power over the heart and affections, directly aiding the 
teacher in the most difficult and important part of his 
work. 

Let this principle be remembered by all : " That school- 
houses, however small, should never be built without 
conforming to those general principles of taste which are 
universally recognized by cultivated people," so that if 
they do not exert a positive influence in elevating taste, 
at least they will have the negative excellence of not 
violating it. The work of education in those higher de- 
partments, which recognizes beauty both of form and 
morals, and the subtile and mysterious relations which 
exist between the two, at best, is an onerous and difficult 
one, and every external influence which assists in for- 
warding it becomes a positive benefit. 




Fig. 99. 



APPENDIX. 



GRADED SCHOOLS. 

The general consolidation of separate districts into town schools 
must give a renewed impulse to the bnilding of school-houses. The 
supervision of schools passing into the hands of more experienced 
and thoughtful men cannot fail to exert a beneficial influence in 
this direction. The following extracts, from the report of the Hon. 
A. E. Rankin, Secretary of the Vermont Board of Education, in 
1869, contain unanswerable arguments in favor of the abolishment 
of the old, isolated district system. Although designed specially 
for Vermont, the same arguments will apply to other parts of tlie 
country as well. 



TOWN SYSTEM VEESUS DISTEICT SYSTEM. 

While we strive assiduously so to economize as not to increase 
the expense of our educational system, we do not take proper pains 
that the money which is annually expended shall be so applied as 
to secure the largest return. 

Let me enumerate some of the prominent obstacles which are in 
the way of the greater efficiency of our schools : 

1. Total lack of or insufficient supervision. 

2. Constant change of supervision. 

3. Poorly qualified teachers. 

4. Constant change of teachers. 

5. Lack of interest in schools on the part of patrons. 

6. Employment of relatives and favorites without regard to 
qualifications. 

Y. Too small schools in many districts. 



240 APPENDIX. 

8. Too short schools in small districts. 

9. Employment of immature and incompetent teachers in small 
districts. 

10. Poor school-honses. 

11. Irregular attendance. 

12. General lack of facilities to aid the teacher. 

13. No schools at all in many districts. 

14. Lack of proper classification. 

15. Pupils study what they choose, and not what they ought. 

These twice seven and one plagues of our common-school sys- 
tem will be recognized by every one who has had any experience 
in connection with the public schools of the State. 

If it could be shown that this nest of evils which so impairs the 
efficiency of our schools could in some measure be removed by a 
radical change of system, no one surely would oppose such change. 

I am confident that these evils may in very great measure be 
alleviated by a change in our system of public schools. I believe 
that the adoption of what is called the town system, in contradis- 
tinction from the district system, would tend largely to diminish 
them. 

I know there are obstacles in the way of the consummation of 
so desirable an end as the reduction of the number of schools. 
But if it can satisfactorily be shown that there can be not only a 
large saving in expense, but that our schools can be increased in 
efficiency, I doubt not these obstacles can be removed. Let us, in 
a somewhat general way, discuss some of the disadvantages which 
result from the present system. 

Teachers understand how impossible it is to secure in a small 
school, or in a small class, that healthful and proper stimulus which 
is almost an incident to the large school or the large class. One 
who has himself ever been an entire class, or one of two or three 
constituting a class, will remember how difficult it was to create in 
himself any such measure of interest as would make the labor of 
preparation other than a dreary task. And this evil extends to the 
teacher as well as to the pupil. He, too, needs stimulus. 

The small district fails to secure that aggregate of interest on 
the part of the inhabitants toward the school which is essential to 
make it successful. This aggregate of interest is the sum total ot 
individual interest. Five families have less interest in a school 



APPENDIX. 241 

than have ten, ten less than fifteen, and so on. The teacher tlius 
receives less stimulus from his surroundings in small than in large 
districts. So with the pupils. 

A careful examination of the statute will disclose the fact that 
the duties imposed upon the school committee are the most im- 
portant duties committed to the citizens of the State ; that in their 
keeping are the highest interests of the State. Properly to dis- 
charge the duties of this office, one should possess high moral 
character, great natural endowments, large measure of mental dis- 
cipline, an unusual degree of intelligence, good practical common 
sense, broad and liberal views, sound judgment, and a fervent love 
for the welfare of the State, quickened by the recognition of the 
fact that its permanence and security depend upon the efficiency 
of its schools. 

Under the present system, the educational interests of the town 
are in the keeping of from thirty to one hundred officials, consist- 
ing of prudential committee, district clerks, the town clerk, and 
the superintendent. What town in the State can furnish this 
maximum number of men, competent to hold this important trust ? 
How many of the two hundred and forty-three towns of the State 
could furnish the maximum number ? How many could not fur- 
nisli five men who, by native gifts and acquirements, are fitted for 
these duties ? 

Is not our present system defective in that it requires too many 
officers ? The average number of individuals in each town, who 
are the school officers of the town, will be found to be from fifty 
to sixty, if we estimate three prudential committees to each dis- 
trict ; the whole number of school officers in the State, something 
more than twelve thousand. Such an army ought to do the work 
well, we say. Yet, who does not believe that one-fifth the number 
would do it far better ? This gives one school officer for every 
seven school children. What an absurdity ! Who believes in this 
multiplicity of supervisors, which almost inevitably results in no 
supervision at all ? Why not elect a board of selectmen, fifty in 
number ? Who would care to live in a town thus supervised ? Is 
it not that three men are found better than fifty, that three are 
elected ? Six men competent for the duties of the school depart- 
ment of the town would be infinitely more efficient than fifty, even 
if it were possible to secure fifty men as competent as the six. 

16 



242 APPENDIX. 

But this large number of scliool officers necessitates the selec- 
tion of incompetent men, many of whom have little interest and 
less ability. The average ability of six of the best men of a town 
is, let us say, twice as great as the average ability of the best 
twelve, and four times as great as the average ability of the best 
twenty-four, and eight times as great as that of the best forty- 
eight. This is not perhaps the exact ratio, but it illustrates what 
is meaiifc, that within certain limits, just in proportion as you in- 
crease the size of your board, just in that proportion do you di- 
minish its aggregate of ability and efficiency. Six men of inferior 
ability, associated with six men of superior ability, give for a re- 
sultant a mean between the two ; this is when they are properly 
disposed and work with some degree of harmony ; when not so 
disposed, the former may and often do neutralize the efficiency of 
the latter. I believe, then, in this regard, that our system is radi- 
cally defective, that it necessitates a train of evils which cannot be 
averted while it exists ; that in no other department of the govern- 
ment can be found such inefficiencyj misjudgment, mismanage- 
ment, and general demoralization. It may seem presumptuous in 
me to attack a system which has been in operation for so many 
years, and to which the people have become attached, which has 
resulted in so great good to the State, and has given Vermont a 
prestige in which her sojis may well feel an honest pride. But it 
is unwise to allow the success of the public schools of the past to 
blind us to the defects of our system. We must not forget that 
the position of the State, like that of the individual, is relative. 
"While our sister States were reaping a lesser percentage of profit 
than the percentage which, by the faithfulness of the friends of 
education, was secured to Vermont, in spite of our monstrous and 
hydra-headed system, we held a position of honor and eminence. 
But to-day, when other States, by abolishing or modifying old sys- 
tems, and thereby utilizing a larger percentage of their working 
power, that very position which was but just now one of superi- 
ority has become one of inferiority. 

The State is a unit, for certain purposes. The county is a imit, 
for certain purposes. The town is a unit, for certain other pur- 
poses. For the purposes of education the district has been re- 
garded as a unit. For almost every other purpose the town has 
been found to be the true unit. Indeed, in several respects, in the 



APPENDIX. 243 

educational department even, the town district system prevails. 
Would it not be wiser to make the town a unit for educational 
purposes ? This question merits further discussion. 

It is quite natural to think that a teacher who can be secured for 
a small stipend will answer for a " small school," so that small 
schools will in general be taught by teachers who could not secure 
situations in larger ones, and would fail if they did. 

Small districts will be likely to have poor school-houses. The 
expense of building and repairing falls heavily upon ten or a dozen 
tax-payers. And the old school-houses, many of them unfit even 
for stalled cattle, will have to serve till that time when we have 
grown wiser and adopted a new order of things ; for there is no 
hope under the present system that the future will afibrd relief. 
The population, except at business centres, is year by year gradu- 
ally growing less. 

Small districts are far less likely to furnish those facilities for 
illustration and reference so necessary to the teacher. Indeed, 
everything which involves an expenditure is likely to remain un- 
done. The committee-man feels like being very economical when 
he reflects that he will be assessed one-tenth of any expenditure ; so 
that globes, dictionaries, and maps, and all school-apparatus, arc 
excluded from the school. 

Change from the district to the town system would result in a 
more efiicient supervision. Almost every town can select a board 
of men competent to look after the interests of the public school. 
This is not true of one-half of the districts of the State. A choice 
from ten men gives poorer chance of proper supervision than a 
choice from three or five hundred. 

Such change would result in a more permanent supervision. 
Small communities are more severely democratic than larger ones. 
Every man must have his share of the honor, and take his turn 
at the wheel, without regard to competency. 

Making one central board of supervision would render possible 
competitive examinations, which are now practically impossible. 
Such examinations would immediately shut out the most incom- 
petent of our teachers. They would discourage girls, scarcely 
beyond the age which the law designates as infancy^ from seeking 
places in om* schools as teachers, when they should be there as 
pupils. 



244 APPENDIX. 

Fewer daugliters, and nieces, and wives' sisters would be em- 
ployed. Even w4ien they are thoroughly competent, their employ- 
ment is often seen to aAvaken such spirit of antagonism as will 
impair the efficiency of the school. Nepotism is as baneful an 
evil in the politics of the school district as in the broader field of 
the State and the nation. 

Again, a better class of teachers would be secured in the smaller 
districts. It could not be expected that all the schools of a town 
would be of equal size. The larger ones, the village schools, as 
now, would secure the best teachers without regard to expense. 
The lesser communities, noticing that they were obliged to help 
support good schools and pay large prices to the teachers of the 
larger schools, \vould very soon begin to feel that if they were 
obliged to help support good schools for their townsmen, it would 
be wise for them to compel their townsmen to help sustain good 
schools for them. 

This change of supervision would tend to remove the evil of a 
constant change of teachers. Permanency of supervision would 
result in permanency of teachers. The frequency of change in 
teachers is a most alarming evil with us. It breaks up all con- 
nection between one term and another. Each teacher has his own 
w^avs, and it takes some time to get out of the old ways and into 
the new, and quite a portion of each term is spent in getting 
started. It thus often happens that a terra is one-third spent 
before the work is well begun. It requires a term of ordinary 
length for a teacher to become familiar with the peculiar charac- 
teristics of his pupils. No very efficient work can be done till this 
is Icnown. He has first to learn their needs and their capacities 
before he can adapt his instruction to the necessities of each pupil. 
An ordinary teacher, who has taught a school for one terra, will 
do more for that school than one of superior endowments and 
acquirements who is an entire stranger to the wants of the school. 
Perpetual change of teachers and inspectors of schools utterly 
ignores the value of experience. I can conceive of no remedy for 
these evils which will be Ukely to prove so efficient as this change 
of system. 

Again, this change would result in a democratic equalization of 
the burden of supporting schools. It now costs each tax-payer in 
.a small district more to support a poor school than it costs the tax- 



APPENDIX. 245 

payer in the larger district to support a good school. Statistics 
show that the expense per pupil increases in the inverse ratio as 
the size of the school diminishes. 

Why should not taxation for the support of schools be equal- 
ized ? Equity demands that it should. Every reason which can 
be urged in favor of good schools demands that it should. 

The district system stands in the way of the introduction of the 
graded system. I make tliis statement upon the supposition that 
there is no probability that district lines will be changed until 
some other than the district system is adopted. True, this might 
be done. Districts might be reorganized and their geographical 
boundaries changed ; but they never will be while the old system 
remains. 

JSIo one, I suppose, at this day assumes to doubt the wisdom of 
the application of the principle of division of labor, as applied to 
the mechanical pursuits. The manufacturer who should require 
each workman to make all parts of a watch, would find that he 
could not compete with his rival who put each workman upon a 
single piece. Even in the manufacture of boots and shoes, where 
no great mechanical genius is required, it is found to be economy 
to allow each man to do a distinct part, so that the boot or shoe is 
not the work of one hand, but of several. Confined to one class 
of work, the workman becomes more skillful, and turns off work 
more rapidly ; his tools are fewer and ready at hand, and there is 
no loss of time in changing from one piece to another. If this be 
economy in the mechanical pursuits, how much more apparent is 
the wisdom of applying this principle to the more delicate and 
responsible work of developing and training the human mind ? 

Now this i& the principle upon which the graded school is based. 
It is found that the teacher who teaches a few branches, and con- 
centrates all his time and efforts upon these branches, can give 
more efficient instruction than the one who attempts to teach all. 
It is upon this principle, in part, that each college professor has 
his distinct department. To this may be added the reasonable 
expectation that if one has to teach but one department or grade, 
he will be likely to work in that department or grade where he 
can work with the most ease to hinaself, and consequently with 
the greatest profit to the school. Teachers who are eminently 
successful in one grade, are oftentimes eminently unsuccessftil in 



246 APPENDIX. 

another grade of the same department ; so that they, like other 
workmen, soon ascertain what their special province is, and adapt 
themselves to it. 

This, however, is not the most substantial argument in favor of 
grading schools. A graded school is simply a classified school. 
Every one knows, who is at all familiar with schools, that their 
success depends very largely upon their classification. It requires 
just as much time to instruct one individual as to instruct a class 
— just as long to instruct a class of three as a class of twenty. If 
your school has as many classes as individuals, and this often hap- 
pens in small schools, the teacher's time is frittered away to little 
purpose. No school whose curriculum comprises all the studies 
from the A B C to the highest branches taught in the common 
school, can be thoroughly classified without having more classes 
tlian the teacher can well instruct. 

If your district has one hundred and twenty-five pupils, it is 
evidently good economy, instead of dividing them without regard 
to advancement, and thus making the curriculum of each school 
as comprehensive as the curriculum of the whole would have been, 
to divide them with reference to advancement, thereby diminish- 
ing the number of classes in each department to one-third or 
one-fourth the number which would otherwise be required. And 
probably it will be found that the number of pupils which would 
require four teachers without proper classification, would, when 
classified, be well taught by three teachers, at a saving of one-fourth 
the expense, and with far better results. 

Every teacher knows how difficult it is to make an impression 
upon a heterogeneous mass grouped together and called a class — 
made up of pupils pursuing the same studies, indeed — but of 
diverse age, diverse capacity, and diverse acquirement, as is usual 
in an ungraded school. 

The more gifted and accomplished are held back, while those 
of lesser gifts and acquirements are dragged on beyond their 
strength. The former grow lazy and indift'erent ; the latter dis- 
couraged and disgusted. The former acquire an overweening 
confidence in their own abilities ; the latter fail to cultivate that 
healthful self-appreciation essential to success, which is naturally 
developed by association with one's peers. Thus it happens that 
all stimulus, both to the bright and the dull, is removed. 



APPENDIX. 247 

Besides, it is impossible for any teacher to adapt his instruction 
to the varied capacities and diverse accomplishments of unclassified 
classes. This is difficult enough in a class which has been selected 
and grouped with reference to like capacities and similar acquire- 
ments. If he adapts his instruction to the more advanced, it will be 
beyond the comprehension of those less advanced. If, on the other 
hand, it is adapted to the needs of those less gifted, it becomes 
tedious and uninstructive to the others. Thus will all the intei-est 
be dissipated, while, if well classified, each individual spirits the 
other. Mutual labor and mutual sympathy are powerful stimu- 
lants, especially to the young. Each spurs and supports the other, 
and industry and diligence is secured in all. 

Again, the graded school furnishes additional inducement to 
eflbrt in this way : Each class has its specific work, and no 
advancement to a higher grade can be secured until that work is 
done. Each grade is a position which cannot be reached except 
by passing step by step all the intermediate ground. The pupils 
in each grade have the perpetual incitement of their more advanced 
associates. From one grade to another is to them a long stride. 
It seems a thing worthy to strive for. !N^ow these stimulants are 
especially needed by slow and not over-gifted minds, and to this 
class a majority of children belong. The result is that progress 
is far more rapid and thorough in a graded than in an ungraded 
school. 

Still, again, the graded system secures a systematic course of 
education. Each pupil does not for himself, nor can his parents 
for him, elect this study or that, as whim or caprice may dictate. 
He must take each in due time and order. That course of study 
is prescribed which will secure the best and most symmetrical 
mental development, embracing those studies a knowledge of 
which is likely to prove of the most practical benefit to the pupil 
in the business pursuits of after-life. 

People sometimes wonder that academies do not flourish as they 
did years ago. They are not only dying out in Vermont, but all 
over the country. Massachusetts has but few left, and these are 
for the most part graded academies. The same process is going 
on in New York. Within the last few years one-third of the 
academies in this State have become extinct. The truth is, the 
old academic system is dead, and the sooner it is buried beyond 



248 APPENDIX. 

resurrection, the better. It served in its day and generation, but 
belongs to the past. While we honor it for the good it has done, 
if we are wise, we shall lay it away in a napkin. It has been sup- 
planted by something which is better. I speak only of ungraded 
academies. 

The material difference between the academy and the graded 
high-school is, that the latter is classified, while the former, gath- 
ering its pupils as it does from a large circuit, and changing in its 
elements from term to term, cannot be classified. 

The graded school has also this other advantage, that it is dem- 
ocratic. All must contribute to its support, and all may avail 
themselves of its advantages. 

These graded schools have been established in many of the large 
towns of Vermont. There are many other towns which desire and 
are working to secure them. A large proportion of the villages 
of the State have, within a radius of a mile and a half, pupils in 
sufficient numbers to make from two to four grades. The obstacles 
in the way are the old district lines. They are held in a sort of 
reverence. I don't know but the people somehow connect them 
with that passage of Holy Writ which pronounces maledictions 
upon those who remove ancient landmarks. It would be about as 
easy to remove the equator as to disturb one of these ancient lines. 
Yermonters seem to hate everything which savors of innovation. 
But we must not forget that dislike of innovation is often a serious 
obstacle to progress. The people will be slow to move in this 
direction. It is the duty of the legislature to step in and take the 
responsibility, if it can be seen to be a measure which should be 
secured. 

It is thought that these schools are more expensive. But a greater 
percentage of profit is often secured by a greater expenditure. 
And it must not be forgotten that there is an element of profit 
which cannot be directly and positively estimated. It is that in- 
fluence which a good school ha§ upon the prosperity of a place. 
It is often of more material advantage than a manufacturing 
company. 

It may be doubted if the aggregate of expenditure for educa- 
tional purposes is greater in a village where there is a well-organized 
and judiciously-managed graded school, than in a village of the 
same size where the old system exists. For, from the expense of 



APPENDIX. 249 

the graded school, if it be what it should be, may be deducted the 
expenditure of the support of a dozen, and oftentimes more, chil- 
dren, who from lack of proper educational facilities at home, are 
compelled to go abroad. And beyond doubt, home is the place to 
educate children. Besides, a good graded school has an income 
secured by the attendance of pupils from abroad. We must also, 
in this connection, remember that the many whose means will not 
allow them to send their children away to better schools, are 
abridged in the privileges which they might enjoy, had they all 
the facilities they are entitled to at home. 

This is the material view of the case. Go into any of our towns 
which have been blessed with a good school for forty or fifty years, 
and you will find the aggregate of intelligence to be far greater 
than in those towns which have enjoyed less educational facilities. 
Is the intelligence of its inhabitants nothing to a town ? Is not 
the expenditure which shall secure this a good investment ? True, 
we cannot estimate it in greenbacks ; yet it is an investment that 
will make its return in kind. It is an invariable rule that the per- 
centage of increase of valuation of property in any community is 
in the direct ratio of the increase of intelligence and virtue. 

Every citizen of extraordinary intelligence, or extraordinary vir- 
tue, enhances the value of all property of the town in which he 
lives. By iust so much as you add to the virtue and intelligence 
of the inhabitants of the town, do you add to the value of its 
acres. It is thus that it is true that " every man's sin is every 
other man's business." It is just as true that every man's igno- 
rance is every other man's business. 

Hon. Henry Barnard thus sets forth the evils that result from 
the lack of proper classification of schools : 

" From the number of class and individual recitations, to be at- 
tended to during each half-day, these exercises are brief, hurried, and 
of little practical value. They consist, for the most part, of sense- 
less repetitions of the words of a book. Instead of being the time 
and place where the real business of teaching is done, where the 
ploughshare of interrogation is driven down into the acquirements 
of each pupil, and his ability to comprehend clearly is cultivated 
and tested ; where the difficult principles of each lesson are de- 
veloped and illustrated, and additional information imparted, and 
the mind of the teacher brought in direct contact with the mind 
of each pupil, to arouse, interest, and direct its opening powers ; 



250 APPENDIX. 

instead of all this and more, the brief period passed in recitation, 
consists, on the part of each teacher, of hearing each individual 
and class, in regular order and quick succession, repeat words from 
a book, and on the part of the pupils, of saying their lessons, as 
the operation is most signilicantly described by most teachers, 
when they summon the class to the stand. In the mean time the 
order of the school must be maintained, and the general business 
must go forward. Little children, without any authorized employ- 
ment for their eyes and hands, and ever active curiosity, must be 
made to sit still, while every muscle is aching from suppressed 
activity ; problems must be solved, excuses for tardiness or absence 
received, questions answered, whisperings allowed or suppressed, 
and more or less of extempore discipline administered. Were it 
not a most ruinous waste of precious time, — did it not involve the 
deadening, crushing, distorting, dwarfing of immortal faculties and 
noble sensibilities, — were it not an utter perversion of the noble 
objects for which schools are instituted, it would be difficult to con- 
ceive of a more diverting farce than an ordinary session of a large 
public school, whose chaotic and discordant elements have not 
been reduced to system by proper classification. The teacher, at 
least the conscientious teacher, thinks it anything but a farce to 
him. Compelled to hurry from one study to another, requiring a 
knowledge of methods altogether distinct ; from one recitation to 
another, equally brief and unsatisfactory, one requiring a liveliness 
of manner that he does not feel and cannot assume, and the other 
closeness of attention and abstraction of thought, which, he cannot 
give amid the multij)licity and variety of cares ; from one case of 
discipHne to another pressing on him at the same tiAe — he goes 
through the same circuit, day after day, with a dizzy brain and 
aching heart, and brings his school to a close with a feeling that 
with all liis diligence and fidelity he has accomplished but little 
good." 

It may be urged against the abrogation of this old system, that 
the people will not willingly surrender these powers which the 
statute has conferred upon them, — the controlling of their own 
schools. But they surrender no power. It still remains in their 
hands. The only difierence is that they act upon the matter 
in a larger assemblage, and under certain restraints which will be 
likely to insure better results. 

A small minority in a district meeting often, by preconcerted 
action, can prevent the having schools at all, or limit them to the 
shortest possible time, or impair their usefulness when in opera- 
tion. Now these ends could not be obtained in the town meeting. 



APPENDIX. 251 

It is far more likely that wise and judicious measures will be 
adopted in a town than in a district meeting, both on account of 
the healthful counterbalance which is always found in a larger 
assemblage, made up of many who have no personal and direct in- 
terest in the matter upon which they act, as well as from the fact 
that the controlling minds in the former are likely to be wiser and 
of greater experience. I think it is true, as Mr. Boutwell suggests 
in a paper which I append, that the district system is thoroughly 
anti-republican. It may secure what is thought to be the greatest 
good to the greatest number, but it often utterly fails to secure the 
gi'eatest aggregate of good to all, which is the end that true re- 
publicanism aims to secure. 

It may be objected that it would not be right to compel chil- 
dren to go so far to school, as would be necessary if districts were 
consolidated. It certainly would be right if thereby greater good 
would come to the State. The State certainly has the right to 
regulate and control in all matters upon which the efficiency of its 
schools depends. Nor is it simply a right ; it is a sacred duty. 
"Which is better for the child, that he shall go a half-mile to a poor 
school, or that he should go twice or thrice that distance to a good 
school ? It would be far cheaper for those residing in the remote 
parts of a district to carry their children — each taking his turn, or 
together hiring some one to do this — than to support a school by 
themselves. 

The following remarks upon this point, which I have chanced 
upon since writing the above, from the Report of the Agent of the 
Board of Education for Massachusetts for the year 1869, are wor- 
thy of perusal : 

" In one district a school has been kept for a single scholar at an 
expense of between $60 and $70. In almost every town that I 
have visited I am satisfied this difficulty could be remedied, with- 
out great inconvenience, by reducing the number of schools, thus 
giving to each a larger number of pupils, and with no more, but 
perhaps even less, money than has heretofore been annually appro- 
priated, securing for them all a longer period of instruction and a 
better class of teachers. It was said very truthfully, a few years 
since, by the committee of a town in Franklin County, — the one to 
which I have referred as quite recently manifesting such opposition 
to the legal requirement, — in which, with one hundred and twenty- 
three school children, there were ten districts, some containing 



252 APPENDIX. 

* not more than four or five scholars,' such a ' town ought to appro- 
priate more money, or reduce the number of districts.' ' Ixeducing 
the number of schools from ten to six, which we think mii^ht be 
done without g-reat inconvenience to the people, would save the 
exj^ense ot' maintaining fom* schools, and the schools would in our 
opinion be greatly improved, a better class of teachers employed, 
and the intellectual, social, and moral condition of the schools 
would be promoted. It will be said that in a spai'se population 
like ours, the trouble of collecting all our scholai-s into six schools 
would more than balance the advantages, especially in winter. 
This objection is more specious than solid. In almost all the dis- 
tricts, those who have fenuile scholars attending, convey them to 
and from school in their sleighs or sleds, and when the horse is 
harnessed it makes but little ditference whether you drive him one 
mile or two ; at the same time j'ou are beating the snow and open- 
ing good roads to the traveller, and bettering the social condition 
ofVour neighborhood. But one practical trutli is more convincing 
than many theories. How do we act when the money is drawn 
directly from our own pockets, as it is in supporting private or 
select schools 'i "Would the town sustain ten private schools to 
save travel ? Do they not devise ' ways and means' to get to 
school beyond the limits of their own districts i Suppose there 
were lifty' scholars in town to attend those schools, would any one 
tliink it worth M-hile to have live schools, because it might save a 
little travel or other inconvenience i AVhy should we be more 
careful o^ money when we pay it voluntarily, than when it is 
drawn from us in the form of taxes ?" 



Now I assume that every tax-payer of Vermont has a direct in- 
terest in any change which will insure the best possible schools at 
the least expense, and will not refuse to countenance and encour- 
age any change which will secure better schools at a less cost ; for 
we are proverbially a thrifty people. 

"Wise men learn from the experience of othei-s. If the experi- 
ence of othei-s is less impressive than our own, it has at least the 
advantage of being tar cheaper. 

Sevenil of our sister States, which had formerly a district system 
similar to om- own, have abolished that system and substituted 
therefor the system of town supervision, which places the schools 
of the town under the control of a town board, elected by the 
town. In some instances this change has been secured gradually 
— legislatures authorizing towns to change when they vote so to 
do. Of course this gradual change is slow. I cannot ascertain 



APPENDIX. 253 

that any State which has once inaugurated the movement has been 
wining to go back to the old order of things. And it is stated by 
Secretary Jjoutwell that no town in Massachusetts, tliat had tried 
the new order for two years, ever turned to the old. These facts 
are significant. 

I append an extract from one of Mr. Boutwell's annual reports, 
made to the Massachusetts Board of Education when he was 
Secretary of tliat body. Tliese remarks were thought so con- 
clusive and of such value that they were printed by themselves as 
a circular and distributed throughout the State. I am glad to 
append them, because I am compelled to treat the subject altogether 
in a general way and upon general principles, being entirely with- 
out experience or observation. I feel that the opinion of Mr, 
Boiitwell, based as it is upon thorough knowledge of the results 
of both systems as they were tried side by side, will have 
greater weight than any arguments I can urge : 

" The laws of 1859, abolishing the district system and transfer- 
ring the duty of selecting teacliers from the prudential to the 
superintending committees, having been repealed by the same 
legislature, at its autumn session, there has been but little oppor- 
tunity for testing the new system. The history of the proceedings 
of the legislature of 18.59 furnishes abundant evidence of a desire 
to promote the interests of learning, and the passage of the meas- 
ures in question was in harmony with that desire. 

" When the committee on education were considering the ex- 
pediency of abolishing the district system, I expressed the opinion 
that the people were not prepared to accept the change without 
serious opposition in some counties. I was myself unwilling to 
make an educational measure the subject of public controversy in 
the State, and much more unwilling to connect our educational 
policy, as a Commonwealth, witli the fortunes of any political party. 
Under these circumstances, I could not advise the passage of the 
law, yet I did not for a moment doubt the patriotic and laudable 
puq^oses of the committee, or the real wisdom of the change con- 
templated, if the people were prepared to accept it. And I am 
now constrained to declare, as the result of extensive correspond- 
ence and interchange of sentiment with the pjeople of the State, 
that their attachment to the district system is not as strong as 
I formerly supposed, and that a large majoi'ity are prepared to 
accept its unqualified abolition. It may not, however, be wise to 
legislate upon the subject immediately ; but I deem this a lit oc- 
casion to invite the inhabitants of the towns where districts still 



254 APPENDIX. 

exist to take the matter into their own hands, and reconstruct their 
school system upon a basis which will admit of economy, progress, 
and efficiency. I entered upon the duties of the office I now hold 
with some faith in the district system ; my observation and ex- 
perience have destroyed that faith entirely. It is a system admi- 
rably calculated to secure poor schools, incompetent teachers, 
consequent waste of public money, and yet neither committees, 
nor districts, nor towns be responsible therefor. 

" It is unquestionably true that the best schools are found where 
the district system does not exist ; and the charge, in a few in- 
stances made or suggested, that there has been no improvement for 
twenty-live years, is limited in its origin and in its truthful appli- 
cation to those towns which are divided into districts. Whenever 
a town has established the municipal system, and adhered vj it for 
two years, there has never within my knowledge been a serious 
effort in favor of the restoration of the district system. These 
facts are so encouraging and so conclusive, that they ought, without 
argument, to convince the most skeptical. The great object of the 
people is the establishment of good schools at the least cost, and 
they have no interest in the district system when it fails to secure 
these ends. 

" Practically, the district system denies the value of experience. 
Each year sees a new prudential committee-man, and each term a 
new teacher. The experience of a year is rendered valueless by 
the election of a new committee ; and the teacher labors for a 
single term, commencing without a knowledge of what the pupils 
have previously accomplished, and ending without an interest in' 
their future. 

"Under these circumstances, it is not strange that district 
schools are kept, term after term, and year after year, without an 
appreciable increase of power. 

" The quality of the school depends upon the character of the 
teacher ; and the character of the teacher depends upon accident, 
or the caprice, prejudices, or convenience of the committee-man. 
Each teacher brings into the school his own ideas of teaching, and 
after two, three, or four months, he goes away, and his place is 
taken by a stranger, who introduces new methods, without the 
judgment of anybody concerning their relative value. The suc- 
cessive terms of school in the same district have not, usually, any 
personal or educational connection with each other. Each term is 
an experiment which proves nothing but its own failure or com 
parative success ; and it does not even furnish, either in its failure 
or its success, a basis for future operations. 

" The district itself is a questionable organization. More fre- 
quently than otherwise it has no legal existence ; and whenever a 
vote authorizing the levy of a tax is resisted, the courts usually 
Und it difficult to sustain the proceedings of the district. 



APPENDIX. 255 

" There are in the cities and towns of Massachusetts three dis- 
tinct school systems. First, the municipal system. Where this 
exists the towns erect and support the school-houses, and confide 
to the superintending committees the selection of teachers. This 
system exists in eighty or a hundred cities and towns, which to- 
gether probably contain more than one-half of the population of 
the State, and, in the character of their schools, they are far in 
advance of the rest of the Commonwealth. 

" In the second class, about fifty in number, the town erect and 
support the school-houses, but the territory is divided into districts, 
and the power to select teachers is confided to prudential commit- 
tees. 

" The third class comprises those towns whose territory is 
divided into districts, and in which each district is charged with 
the duty of selecting its teachers and providing a school-house. 

" In most towns where this system exists, the districts are too 
numerous, the school-houses are poor and inconvenient, and the 
number of pupils is insufiicient to constitute a good school. Dis- 
tricts containing less than twelve pupils each, may be enumerated 
by the hundred. It is quite likely that in the sparsely peopled 
sections of the State, a necessity for small districts occasionally 
exists ; but it is a manifest public right to require pupils to travel 
from one to two miles to school, according to circumstances, rather 
than incur the expense of sustaining small, and, of course, poor 
schools. Moreover, the interest of the family is the same. A 
good school, even though the distance be considerable, is infinitely 
more important than the immediate neighborhood of a poor school. 
These small districts are tenacious of existence, and the only 
means by which they can be destroyed is for the towns to assume 
exclusive jurisdiction, including the burden of the houses, and 
then, from time to time, as occasions arise, pass judgment upon 
the expediency of continuing schools for the accommodation of 
a small number of persons who may often enjoy better educational 
advantages elsewhere. And in behalf of weak districts, whose 
pecuniary means are inadequate to the erection of suitable school- 
houses, I appeal to the towns, and ask them to reassume a burden 
which they ought never to have thrown off. To the town the 
erection of a school-house is usually a small matter ; to a weak 
district it is often a burden far greater than all its other public 
contributions combined. 

" The district system is an obstacle to the establishment of 
graded schools. There are many villages, in towns where the 
district system exists, that are divided into districts, which, if 
united, would furnish pupils for a school of two, three, or four 
departments. In all these cases there is great waste of money and 
of teaching force. The object of our school system is to get a 
competent teacher into every school ; but the district and the 



256 APPENDIX. 

prudential committee systems are the best seem-ity wliicli the 
pubhc can take that that object shall never be attained. Admit 
that all the inhabitants of a district are disposed to do what is 
right and proper, and what are the chances of success ? Rotation 
in office is the law of their public action. This is often a necessity. 
Each citizen feels the burden of the duties, and he therefore claims 
that others shall bear their share. Often there is a public senti- 
ment which at once demands for and concedes to every man the 
right to hold the office in turn. In either case the one all-essential 
requisite of experience is wanting. And though the prudential 
committee may be a good citizen, a good farmer, a good mechanic, 
or a professional man in regular standing, he yet lacks knowledge 
of the business which he is to transact. His acquaintance with 
teachers also is limited ; and he finds, moreover, that the towns in 
which the prudential system does not exist, having always a com- 
mittee competent to make contracts for a year in advance, have 
secured the services of the most competent persons. Thus, by the 
unnecessary multiplication of districts and schools in the sparsely 
peopled towns, the small number of pupils in each school, the lack 
of experience in prudential committees, and, on the other hand, 
the existence of superior schools, the payment of higher wages, 
the larger experience of committees where the municipal system 
exists, there has arisen a difierence between the towns of the Com- 
monwealth which admits of no other explanation than that sug- 
gested in this report, l^or ought the statement of the fact to be 
omitted, that the course pursued occasionally, where the district 
system exists, is open to the gravest objections. District meetings 
are not generally attended by even a majority of the voters. It 
therefore happens that it is possible for a minority to elect the 
officers and control the policy of the district. Hence it is true of 
nearly every town, that once at least in its history, the organization 
of a district has been seized by a small number of men who enter- 
tained schemes inconsistent with the welfare of the schools. As- 
sembled by concert, in the shades of evening, in a dimly lighted 
house, they have proceeded, without serious opposition, to consum- 
mate their schemes ; and a prudential committee, in their interest, 
has been elected, who at once makes a contract with a relative, 
friend, or favorite, without regard to the intellectual or moral wel- 
fare of the children who are to be members of the school. 

" Nor, under such circumstances, is it often in the province of 
the superintending committee to resist the scheme, or to redress 
the grievance. These evils come from the exceptional and anti- 
republican character of our school districts. There is no other 
department of government in the Commonwealth, or under its 
authority, in which it is possible for a single person, acting in the 
name of the people, to proceed without consultation, without 
deliberation, without agreement, and bind his constituency in 



APPENDIX. 257 

matters affecting their nearest rights and dearest privileges, and 
all without regard to any influence or opinion but such as pro- 
ceeds from his own whims, passions, prejudices, or errors. 

" Kor can it be assumed that ' the district system is, even in the 
least degree, a promoter of popular liberty. It does nothing for 
education that might not be better done by other agencies ; and, 
as a system, it exerts no influence, not even in the most remote 
degree, over the civil or political fortunes of the people. Ex- 
perience is a great teacher, and neither the district system nor any 
system analogous to it, exists in the larger number of American 
States, and yet popular liberty is not confined to Massachusetts. 
Moreover, at least half of the people of the State have voluntarily 
abandoned the district system, and are not aware of any loss of 
liberty. 

" JS^or is it true that more interest in schools is manifested where 
the district system exists, but the greater interest is observed where 
good schools are found. The quality of the schools and the interest 
of the people act and react upon each other. A generous and in- 
telligent public interest renders the establishment of good schools 
necessary and easy, and good schools are calculated to widen, 
strengthen, and deepen the interest of the people. Therefore it is 
absurd in reasoning, and false in history, to assume that a system 
under which poor schools are the rule, and good ones the excep- 
tion, is adapted to increase the interest of the people in learning, 
or in the institutions thereof. 

"In concluding this part of my report, I earnestly invite the 
inhabitants of the towns where the district system still exists, to 
make faithful trial of the municipal system for the period of two 
or three years. And be it everywhere understood, that the aboli- 
tion of the district system, whether by a law of the State, or the 
action of the towns themselves, works no concentration of power 
in the hands of any body outside of the respective municipalities 
interested. The legislature takes nothing, the Board of Education 
takes nothing, but the towns reclaim and exercise certain authori- 
ties, and perform certain duties, primarily, originally, and always 
their own, until they saw tit to transfer them temporarily and for 
certain purposes, to the districts, whose existence even was due to 
and always dependent upon the action of the towns. The re- 
assumption of these duties and authorities is entirely consistent 
with the original policy of the Commonwealth, which regarded 
the towns as the responsible managers of the common schools. 
Nor can there be any safer depository of this power. If anywhere 
under the canopy of heaven, and among men, there is a perfect 
democracy, it is in a New England, a Massachusetts town meeting. 
There, in the light of day, and in the presence of the world, where 
the power of each man, without regard to social, sectarian, pecu- 
niary, or industrial distinctions, is equal to that of any other man, 

17 



258 APPENDIX. 

the people proceed to legislate upon all their municipal concerns. 
And is there one of higher moment than the management of their 
public schools ? And is there danger to popular liberty when the 
power to take the initiative in the selection of a teacher is trans- 
ferred from the evening meeting of a minority of a school district, 
to the inhabitants of a whole town, assembled in the light of day 
to legislate upon all matters of local and municipal importance ? 

"It is a principle in our government, that whoever contributes 
to the public burdens has a right to be heard by himself, or by his 
representative, in the expenditure of the public money ; and it 
therefore follows that as long as the schools of a town are supported 
by the taxation of all its citizens, each citizen has a right to a 
voice in the expenditure of money for educational purposes. This 
voice must be heard in the choice of a committee authorized to 
select the teachers, or it cannot be heard at all. The superintend- 
ing committees are chosen by the people, one-third each year, and 
therefore there is annually an opportunity for the expression of 
pubKc sentiment. Under the municipal system the entire respon- 
sibility is upon the committee, and under the pressure of this re- 
sponsibility, with a large and constantly enlarging experience, 
there can be but little doubt of their disposition or their ability to 
meet every reasonable expectation. Led to retain those teachers 
who have succeeded, and forced to put aside those who are com- 
paratively incompetent, the standard of qualifications would be 
gradually elevated, and the schools proportionately improved. 

" I have been thus earnest and minute in this exposition of the 
district system, in the hope that the inhabitants of those towns 
where it still exists may be led to make a trial of the municipal 
system, which, I am persuaded, will render their schools at once 
more valuable and more economical. It is practicable for many, 
even of the smaller towns, to consolidate their most populous dis- 
tricts, establish graded schools with two or three departments, the 
higher of which shall furnish training equivalent to that usually 
given in good English High-Schools, without much addition to 
their present appropriations." 

Let us now see if we can gather up some of the results that 
would grow out of this change which is advocated. 

1. It would secure just as many schools as the necessities of the 
community demand, each being an integral part of one central 
organization, and adapted to the wants of each individual com- 
munity. 

2. It would dispense with a large number of school ofiicers. 

3. It would establish a uniform rate of taxation. 



APPENDIX. 259 

4. It would furnish more uniform and equal advantages and 
privileges to every citizen. 

5. It would allow the child to attend school where his own in- 
terests would .be best conserved, with no restraint save what the 
general, interests might require. 

6. It would prevent strife about district lines. 

7. It would diminish the aggregate expenditm"e for schools. 

8. It would secure a more elhcient system of school inspection 
and supervision. 

9. It would secure permanency of supervision. 

10. It would secure greater permanency of teachers. 

11. It would secure a better class of teachers. 

12. It would secure better compensation to competent teachers, 
and less employment for incompetent ones. 

13. It will secure better school-houses. 

14. It will secure greater facilities to teachers for reference and 
illustration. 

15. It will enable towns to establish graded schools. 

16. It will secure uniformity of text-books in the same town. 
lY. It will result in more uniform methods of teaching. 

18. It will secure the establishment of a course of study, and 
will tend to keep pupils longer in school. 

19. It will secure to the State department more reliable 
statistics. 

20. It will insure schools in every district, and prevent a bare 
majority from depriving a respectable minority of school privileges. 

21. It will tend to diminish neighborhood quarrels. 

22. It would insure the employment of fewer nephews and 
nieces, sisters and sisters-in-law. 

23. It would insure a larger aggregate of interest on the part of 
the community in each school. 

24. It would render possible competitive examinations. 

It may be asked, would not this radical change in our school 
system interfere with their present and immediate usefulness? 
Would it not so disorganize and break up the system that the 
schools would be impaired for some time to come ? 

I think not. The material change would be simply the sul> 
stitution of a town board of school managers in place of the 



260 APPENDIX. 

various district boards. This substitution need cause no break in 
the working of our schools — scarcely a jostle. The prudential 
committee would continue to discharge their duties until the elec- 
tion of the town boards, at which time all district supervision 
would cease ; all school property would come into the possession 
of the town upon such conditions as the statute should provide. 

ISTot a school need be closed or interrupted, not a teacher dis- 
charged, not a contract vitiated or annulled. The educational 
machine would work right on without obstruction, but more 
smoothly and with greater efficiency, because of the greater sim- 
plicity and unity of the new system, and its better supervision. 
Without shock, without confusion, almost without attracting obser- 
vation, the change would be wrought, and we should wake up 
some* morning and find ourselves possessed of a more compact, 
more simple, and more efficient, though less expensive, school 
organization. One need scarcely be reminded of change, save as 
it is suggested by the munificence of the blessings it secures. 

It may be asked what shall be done with the school property 
which now belongs to the districts. It would pass to the posses- 
sion of the town, each district being credited with the amount of 
its valuation on appraisal, less the amount of indebtedness of said 
district. That is, the town would practically purchase the school 
property of each district and assume its indebtedness. 



CHAPTER II. 

VENTILATION. 

The following extracts from the works of Mr. L. W. Leeds upon 
ventilation are of great value. The chapter upon Heating and 
Yentilation in this work, with slight modifications, is the embodi- 
ment of principles which Mr. Leeds so ablj advocates. The modi- 
fications are necessary to secure an apparatus at once cheap and 
adapted to the wants of common schools. 



VENTILATION AND WARMING. 

" That great American institution, the cast-iron stove, is in dis- 
grace. It has been, we think, unjustly and unmercifully per- 
secuted. There is a strenuous efibrt being made to exonerate our- 
selves from just censure merited by our many sins of omission and 
commission, by endeavoring to cast the blame upon this most faith- 
ful servant of almost every laboring man's home. 

" That great and successful laborer for the improvement of 
American homes, A. J. Downing, devoted no stinted portion of 
the brilliant delineations of his gifted pen to the unmeasured con- 
demnation of this peculiar American institution. Charles Dickens's 
fertile brain seems almost exhausted in gathering up expressive 
adjectives of condemnation to hurl at that 'eternal, accursed, 
suffocating, red-hot demon of a stove, so commonly found in 
America.' 

" This Dr. Harris quotes approvingly, and thinks the better 
health of the foundling hospitals of Paris is because this ' accursed 
stove' is unknown in those public institutions. 

" Catharine E. Beecher, and an unnumbered host of other very- 
able writers, strive not to be outdone in condemning the poor 
object that they suppose to be the great source and cause of those 
foul-air diseases that seem to have increased so fearfully of late and 
are causing such devastation in our modern American homes. 



262 APPENDIX. 

Now, add to all this Dr. Derby's very able arguments intended to 
call attention to the great harm probably arising from the escape 
of that intense poison, carbonic oxide, from burning anthracite 
coal, and the very learned discussions and experiments of the 
French Academy of Sciences, showing that the virulent poison 
pays no attention to the simple, crude attempts to contine it by 
cast-iron, but passes through such obstructions at will, with almost 
as much ease as a squirrel would through a post-and-rail fence; 
and after all this, one can scarcely perceive what will be the result 
of attempting to plead its cause, to advocate the general or almost 
universal use of this despised and persecuted article, the American 
stove. 

'' But w^e will do it, not in the interest of the stove manufac- 
turers — for we have no friend in the business, and the stove is too 
much in disgrace to afford to pay for its advocacy in that way — 
nor yet from mere compassion, as many take the part of any per- 
secuted object, but from sincere conviction of its intrinsic worth, 
because it Is our belief that its universal use, if used properly — not 
abused — would ])e of inestimable value to the American people. 
We believe that they are of mucli more value to us than all the 
gold mines of California and Nevada. The value of the shipping 
that sails from our ports and dots the ocean in every clime is but 
a drop in the bucket compared with the value to us of the proper 
use of our American stoves. Now, we will endeavor to give our 
reasons for entertaining an opinion so singular and unpopular. 

" Accepting as a truth that saying of the great Dr. Franklin, 
that Tublic" Health is Public AVeatth,' and which an eminent 
hygienist of England lately said should be inscribed in letters of 
gutd over every school-house and public building throughout the 
land, it becomes a question of the gravest importance as to how the 
best conditions of public health can be obtained. 

" We must not take a casual and superficial glance only at a few 
of tlie prominent members of society, who by their wealth and 
position nuiy be able to attract more attention Irom the public 
than a whole factory full of men and women who labor from seven 
in the morning until six at night ; because these wealthy men, if 
they lose an hour, or a day, or even a month, by sickness, have no 
fear of losing their situations and the entire support of a dependent 
family. But it is the men and women upon whose strong muscles 
the country is dependent for all its numual labor whose health 
must be looked after and pi'eserved — it is the health of these that 
forms the great wealth of a nation. 

"Now, one of the great fundamental conditions of our existence 
is, that we nuiintain a uniform temperature of our body, the stand- 
ard of which is commonly much above that of the surrounding 
atmosphere ; and this must be secured at all times, or existence 
itself ceases. Upon the manner of supplying this artitical heat, 



APPENDIX. 263 

and the supply of fresh air which more or less accompanies it, 
depend the health, wealth, prosperity, and happiness of the nation 
on one hand, and the sickness, poverty, and wretchedness of it on 
the other. In the early settlement of a country, when wood is 
very abundant, the open wood-fire is not only the cheapest and 
simplest form of obtaining the required artificial heat, but it is in 
many respects the most advantageous to health of any known 
means. But in large cities and thickly-settled countries, wood is 
too expensive for ordinary use for a large majority of the people — 
and the wealthy even neglect to use wood-fires, from ignorance, 
propably, of their real sanitary value. Fires of coal in open grates 
are the next mosi; simple arrangement, and although not without 
their inconveniences, yet they have some excellent sanitary quali- 
ties ; and it is our opinion it would add greatly to the health and 
happiness of many families, even in moderate circumstances, to 
have an open fire to sit by, should they have to substitute an old- 
fashioned rag-carpet to cover the floor instead of a more expensive 
one. 

" But notwithstanding the many advantages of the open fires of 
wood and coal, yet they are expensive, as they consume from 
three to five times as much coal to produce the same amount 
of heat in a room as can be produced by a good stove. The 
question is not so much. Shall the laboring classes use stoves, 
or shall they have open fires? as it is. Shall they have stoves, 
or shall they go without artificial heat altogether? If Charles 
Dickens were to visit the forty thousand paupers said to dwell 
in one portion only of London, he would not, to be sure, find 
them crowded around that ' peculiar American institution,' the 
' infernal red-hot stove ;' but, far worse, he would find them 
crowded together in some cold, damp, chilly room, perhaps a 
few hovering over same smoking embers, but the majority liud- 
dled together in a corner, covered by all the old rags they had 
left after calking all the cracks of the doors and windows, to 
keep out, if possible, any breath of air. 

" Heat is a great and valuable sanitary agent, and if it can be 
made available more cheaply by the use of the stove than in any 
other way, it is the duty of the sanitarian to teach the people how 
to use that, and not to spend his time in abusing it simply for the 
faults resulting from its misuse. The want of a proper supply of 
fresh air when heating by the stove is one great cause of this hue and 
cry against the poor stove. It does, of course, allow a small room 
to be shut up almost air-tight, and if crowded with filthy people, 
with a kerosene lamp smoking in the room, there is no doubt what- 
ever that a very foul and offensive atmosphere may be thus manu- 
factured. A bright, open fire scarcely allows of this abuse. But 
it is the simplest thing in the world to remedy all this, and it can 
be done with the stove much cheaper, and frequently with more 



264 APPENDIX. 

satisfaction, than with the open fire. All that is required is to 
bring in a good supply of fresh air from out of doors, and discharge 
it on the top of the stove. 

'' But in attempting to do this it is qnite strange how many very 
intelligent persons will commit the fatal error of supposing that all 
that is^necessary is to cut a hole through the floor, and the fresh air 
will flow up around the stove itself, instead of which it will simply 
flow out over the floor, being heavier than the air in the room. It 
must always be conducted to, and discharged on top of the stove, 
and then \t simply falls down and mingles with the heated air 
arising around the stove. This introduction of fresh air around 
the stove was very fully explained by Dr. Franklin and most 
enthusiastically advocated by him, and he introduced it largely 
during his lifetime through the world-renowned ' Franklin stove ;' 
yet owing to the stupidity, or ignorance, or whatever we must call 
it, of the people as to tlie value of or necessity for fresh air, this 
valuable feature of this celebrated stove — in fact, all the Franhlin 
— wa^ omitted, and the simple skeleton, without the spirit, handed 
down with his name. 

" We have taken much pains to inquire of recent prominent 
writers who have urged the use of the ' Franklin stove' if they 
knew what a ' Franklin stove' was I They are apt to be quite in- 
dignant at the suspicion of such ignorance ; but on inquiring how 
they propose supplying the fresh, external air to their stove, they 
want to know what is meant. We have found scarcely a single 
writer thus questioned M^ho had the correct idea of a Franklin 
stove. There was a large number of these Franklin or ventilating- 
stoves used during the war, and when, to the liberal supply of 
fresh air was added an abmidant supply of moisture, an artiflcial 
atmosphere was produced which for genial warmth, freshness, and 
purity could scarcely be excelled by any artificial means of heating 
now known. The success of this manner of warming the hos- 
pitals during our late war has given a great impetus to the rein-- 
troduction of Franklin stoves. Their introduction into the 
hospitals and barracks of England is urged by the surgeons and 
inspectors. The Sanitary Committee of the Paris Exposition 
spoke in the highest terms of this system of heating and ventila- 
tion as adopted in the United States. 

'" Owing to the necessity in schools of the children sitting very 
close to the stove, most of those made for such positions are 
entirely surrounded by the casing, thus forming an air-chamber 
around the whole stove. This greatly obstructs that portion of 
the heat that gives the great superiority to open fires and stoves 
over hot-air furnaces. We mean the direct radiation. The eflects 
of heating by direct radiation and by currents of circulating 
warmed air are very diflerent. You may be sitting in front of an 
open fire from which the rays of heat will be thrown out so strong 



APPENDIX. 265 

that you "sdll be kept comfortably warm, and at the same time 
there may be a current of air snrroimding you, and from which 
you are breathing, which passes by you into the fire at a tempera- 
ture many degrees below that indicated by the thermometer. 

" On the contrary, in a room heated exclusively by hot-air cur- 
rents you are surrounded by and breathing air heated hotter than 
indicated by the thermometer; because the cold walls and cold 
windows are constantly absorbing the heat of the solid bodies in 
the room by radiation. 

" When we consider how much more active and vigorous the 
system is when breathing the cold, bracing air of winter than 
when breathing the warm debilitating air of summer, we can 
readily understand how much more wholesome would be an at- 
mosphere in which a large proportion of heat would be derived 
from the direct radiation of a hot stove or open fire, than where 
all the air was vitiated by overheating for the pui-pose of securing 
the required warmth in that way. 

" The loud and universal complaints against all hot-air furnaces 
have fully demonstrated the entire impossibility of producing a 
comfortable and satisfactory atmosphere in a room by that means 
only. With the open fire, the highly heated and vitiated air is 
carried directly up the chimney. Much heat is thus wasted, of 
course ; but this may be far better than the wasting of the health 
by attempting to breathe it. In heating by the stove, the air that 
comes in contact with the hot sides, and is thus heated and conse- 
quently vitiated, is frequently retained in the room ; this makes a 
stove-heated room more unpleasant than when warmed by the 
open fire. But suppose there should be sufficient ventilation to 
carry out of the room directly this warmed and vitiated air, and 
depend mostly upon the radiation from the stove for heating, that 
would be still much cheaper than the open fire, and far more 
wholesome than the heat from a miserable hot-air furnace. 

" To continue our comments still further upon this topic, we 
may remark that the radiation from the hot-air stove would act in 
all directions equally — one must remember the rays of heat are 
thrown as much to the floor as to the ceiling ; it is only the cur- 
rents of w^armed and vitiated air that rush to the ceiling, while the 
currents of cold, and generally purer, air flow along the floor. 
But if the pure external air is brought in on top of the hot stove 
and falls over it, the radiation from the stove is sufiicient to keep 
up an equal temj^erature over the whole room ; and if the supply 
of air by the stove is sufiicient to fill the room and allow for what 
is carried oft" for ventilation, there will be no cold air sucking in 
under the door and around the windows, which creates those cold, 
unpleasant draughts so much complained of. Now a word about 
that dreadful poison, 'carbonic oxide,' that passes through the 
iron stove so easily. It is our belief that many hundreds and 



266 APPENDIX 

thousands die every year from the escape of this gas ; but prac- 
ticallj the amount that escapes through the soKd iron is probably 
a rery small fraction compared with what escapes, or rather is 
expelled, through the open joints of stoves and furnaces, or from 
open hres, by badly constructed flues. Here is the great trouble 
with most of our heating arrangements. We believe that poorly 
constructed and entirely choked flues are the cause of more sick- 
ness and deaths in the United States than cholera, yellow fever, 
and small-pox comluned. Few persons who have not made a 
general investigation of this subject have any conception of the 
very large number of flues in dailj^ use that are either entirely 
choked or totally inadequate to carry oft" the gases and smoke from 
the fires which they are intended thus to relieve; hence the very 
frequent annoyance from gas and smoke daily met with." 

VENTILATION AND WARMING. 

" A kind of chronic confusion and bewilderment seems to have 
taken possession of the public mind in regard to ventilation. The 
disappointment (consequent upon the failure to realize the wonder- 
ful results anticipated by the sanguine inventors of many new con- 
trivances for ventilation, seems to have cooled the ardor of not a 
few of the young and enthusiastic advocates of that science. Older 
and more indift'erent ones have quietly closed up all openings that 
produced so many draughts, and seemed to have supposed, like the 
i3ird of the desert, that by hiding their eyes to their great enemy, 
they could thus escape his attacks. The results are related in 
every morning's paper in the record of the large number of deaths 
resulting from foul air. There have been so many failures in what 
might be termed scientific ventilation, or special schemes and con- 
trivances of theoretical men, that any modest, industrious man, 
though of good ordinary intelligence, shrinks from a proposition to 
investigate the mysteries of this subject with as genuine a shudder 
as he would from a request to explain the wonders of spirit-rap- 

" ^ow, the first thing that presents itself to the utilitarian mind, 
when asked to step out of or beyond the regular routine of daily 
life, is, ''' Will it pay, or is it necessary ?" then, " How can it be 
done, and what will it cost f That there is need of some improve- 
ment in the ventilation of most of our buildings is now very 
generally acknowledged ; but a willingness to spend the necessary 
money to secure good results, and a belief that such expenditure 
will pay, are still generally wanting. There seems to be a prevail- 
ing belief that what is needed is some new invention that is going 
to supply all the time, summer and winter, pure fresh air, without 
any further thought in regard to the matter. This is a very en-o- 



APPENDIX. 267 

neons suppoBition. It is also a very unfortunate one, because, 
while it is impossible that it shonld ever be realized, its constant 
anticipation prevents that care and attention to the proper use of 
the appliances for ventilation which are accessible to all. If, there- 
fore, the public were to cease altogether from looking for new in- 
ventions, and wasting money on them, and each one w^ere to devote 
his whole attention to making the best use of whatever he had for 
ventilation and warming, real progress would soon be made on a 
good and substantial foundation. This popular longing for new 
things has taught many utterly to despise all arrangements hereto- 
fore in use, because, as they are expecting that the true theory of 
ventilation is yet to be discovered, and that it will be entirely 
diiferent from anything they have ever thought of, therefore, what- 
ever they have seen before must necessarily be good for nothing. 
Instead of this, to-day, all the essential means of ventilation and 
warming likely to be developed for a long time to come are really 
at hand. Improvements will consist in increased knowledge as to 
the use of them to the best advantage. 

" While it is very true that there are many exceedingly uncom- 
fortable buildings, and that the atmosphere in most modern houses 
and public buildings is very unwholesome, yet it is equally true 
that there are, even at the pi-esent time, many well-ventilated and 
well- warmed buildings. One of. the first things to learn is to be 
able to tell when a building is properly ventilated and warmed, 
and when it is not. The perfection of ventilation consists in the 
unconscious satisfaction of all the inmates — a condition in which 
they think nothing about it. The contrary, however — that is to 
say, a constant complaining of a want of proper ventilation in a 
public room — by no means proves that those complaints are just. 
One often finds attending the same services of a Sabbath, persons 
of exceedingly different habits and constitutions. JN^ot unfrequently 
a young lady may be observed entering with glowing countenance 
and in the full bloom of health. Accustomed to be in the open 
air, taking her ride, walk, or skating every day — rain or shine, 
sleet, snow, or hail — and accustomed as well to sleep in a perfectly 
cold room, with windows open all winter — as the strong, pure 
blood, courses through her veins, there is a pleasure and a delight 
in her very appearance. To enter a room at a temperature of 70° 
Fahrenheit is to her oppressive ; and she throws back her furs, 
commences fanning, and begs the sexton please give them a little 
fresh air, or she will certainl}^ smother. But, perhaps, on the very 
next seat behind her may be seated a poor, emaciated victim 
of foul air — a lawyer, perhaps, or the secretary of some life insur- 
ance company — whose poor, thin blood has almost ceased to per- 
form its legitimate function, and whose deep cough and short 
breath but too plainly indicate his long abuse of the great funda- 



268 APPENDIX. 

mental principle of all healthy existence — an abundant supply of 
pure air. The very sight of him sends a cold, creeping ague over 
you. He has scarcely taken his seat wlien he buttons up his coat 
and wants to know if they intend to freeze everybody to death ; 
concluding with the remark that, if they cannot manage to keep 
the building warm, he will have to quit attending, as it is impossi- 
ble to avoid taking a severe cold every time he ventures there. 
This is the ver}' common experience of every one who has ever 
had the care of any large public building. 

"' Now, it would be quite difficult so to warm and ventilate a 
building as perfectly to satisty botli these extremes. The great 
value to be derived from a thorough personal knowledge of the 
theory and practice of ventilation is the ability to adapt one's self 
to the conditions that necessarily surround us, 

" If the young lady directly in front of you in a railroad car insists 
on having the window open with the thermometer at zero, of 
course it would be utterly useless to attempt to explain to her that it 
is not necessary. It is, therefore, better to put on your overcoat, wrap 
your shawl around your feet, and endeavor to hnd a seat in front 
of her. Or, if you have been so foolish as to attempt to deprive 
your poor body of a good night's rest by taking a berth in a 
sleeping-car, and have been waked up after half an hour's restless 
sleep just in the middle of some horrid dream, raise your window 
a little and put your folded newspaper under it, and draw the 
blinds down over it to prevent its being discovered by the attend- 
ant. Then, by putting your face close to the opening, even if it 
is small, you will have sufficient })ure air to give you a good night's 
rest, perhaps, if not too much disturbed by the awful snoring and 
growling of yom* fellow-passengers, tossing about m the foul at- 
mosphere of other parts of the car. Thus, there are many very 
simple ways of securing good ventilation, no matter how unfavor- 
able the surrounding conditions may be. But it is entirely im- 
possible — this word imj)ossible should be used with caution — that 
one should be always surrounded with conditions not admitting of 
the advantageous use of a little correct knowledge of the general 
principles of ventilation and warming. 

" Perhaps the very best patent that could be obtained for anything 
connected with this subject would be the application of a little 
common souse to the use of our ordinary contrivances. This cer- 
tainly would be sufficiently novel to secure the granting of the 
patent at once. One of the very common causes of failure with 
many of the contrivances for ventilation, is the neglect of those 
adopting them to take a full, complete, and comprehensive view 
of all the circumstances surrounding them. They fail to compre- 
iiend the force and power of the ever-varying currents of the 
external atmosphere. The pressure of a strong wind amounts to 



APPENDIX. 269 

many tons on the side of an ordinary building. Now, tlie whole 
of this pressure may be exerted one moment, and almost entirely 
withdrawn the very next. Or, it may be pressing on one side of 
the building one hour, (;reating a partial vacuum on the other, and 
the next hour both the pressure and vacuum may be reversed. 
These are great controlling conditions ; and yet one sees, daily and 
almost hourly, in the offices and rooms of persons of good ordinary 
intelligence, a lamp or a gas-light burning in one corner of a large 
apartment, which, it is confidently expected, will thoroughly ven- 
tilate the whole building. Or, perhaps, a little toy-wheel, at times 
whirling around in the Mnndow-pane, and at other times motion- 
less, is designed to answer tlie same purpose. The little woolly 
lap-dog, as he bellows out at the express-train with all the energy 
and force of his little lungs, scarcely presents a more ludicrous 
waste and misapplication of power. One must first learn to com- 
prehend these great controlling natural forces ; and, whenever it is 
possible, work with them instead of attempting to oppose them. 
It will be seen at a glance, however, that all contrivances for ven- 
tilation must necessarily be varied frequently, owing to the con- 
stantly altering conditions with which one is surrounded. An open 
window is very agreeable on *a warm spring morning, but quite 
the contrary when admitting the keen, piercing wind of a cold 
winter's day. Windows and doors are our great natural ventila- 
tors ; and many persons, in . speaking of ventilation, overlook the 
important part they really play in the ventilation of buildings. 
Occupants exercise ' considerable thought and care in opening and 
closing these according to the ever-shifting conditions of the at- 
mosphere, and ought to exercise the same intelligence in regulating 
other contrivances for ventilation. The difficulty is, that many 
f)ersons seem to be anticipating the discovery of some system of 
ventilation that will require no thought and no intelligence to 
regulate. When they can control the external temperature, and 
keep it forever at one uniform standard, and cause the wind to 
blow forever with the same force and in one direction, this may be 
done, Init not before. 

" Important as windows and doors are for general ventilation, yet, 
in every building, and in almost every room, it is very desirable to 
have some other provision for ventilation — some contrivance that 
may be frequently and easily regulated according to the veering 
of the wind and the alteration of temperature, as well as according 
to the relative temperature of the external atmosphere and that 
of the room. 

" When the public shall have comprehended that one breathes 
more than ten times the number of pounds of air that one eats of 
food, and that it is of ten times the importance to have pure air 
than it is to have pure food ; and further, when the public shall 



270 APPENDIX. 

]iave determined to make a liberal expenditure of time, money, 
and tliouo-lit to jtroeure this constant siip])ly of pnre air, tlu^i it 
will be in a condition to examine critically the many contrivances 
ottered for that pm-pose, and will probably soon learn that there has 
been an exceedingly small ainonut of common sense applied to the 
accomplishment of the object aimed at. At the same time, con- 
siderable valuable ingenuity has been wasted for want of taking 
an enlarged, clear, antl comprehensive view of the whole subject 
before startin*;." 



SUNSHINE 

" Sunshine, the great motive power of atmospheric movements, 
is the motive power of natural ventilation. It is also Nature's 
great disinfectant ; and if there is one place more than another in 
which its influence cannot be dispensed with, that place is the 
school-room. 

'' From the disregard of sunlight — direct sunlight — so noticeable 
in the construction, not only of school-houses but dwellings, it is 
to be feared that few persons realize how soon the walls, carpets, 
and other porous objects in a, room become foul by the absorption 
of ett'cte matter exhaled from the bodies of the occupants. A free 
cinnilation of air is of great value. Us well for removing these 
exhalations before they can be deposited as for supplying fresh air 
for breathing. P)Ut mere change of air is not suthcient : a more 
powerful agent is re^piircd. Every lady knows, unfortunately, how 
soon direct sunlight fades the bright colors of her carpets and 
u})holstery. Too few appear to know that the same blessed agent 
is etpially energetic in dissipating the fever-breeding, consuni])tion- 
causing air that pervades and clings to her carefully-shaded furni- 
ture. We want fewer heavy curtains and closed shutters, and 
more sunshine in our public and private apartments. 

" Many attempts have been made to secure the thorough ventila- 
tion of buildings by currents of air ])roduced by artificial means, 
to the entire neglect of natural ventilation ; but always with dis- 
a|)i)ointnient. Ventilating engineers are apt to commence by cal- 
culating first how much each person will inhale or exhale in a 
minute, and then, by making what seems to be a liberal allowance 
for the contamination of the surrounding air, endeavor to provide 
for the re(]uisite suj)ply of pure air. The results obtained almost 
invariably fall short of what is actually recpiired. Especially in 
mild' or close weather do these artificial arrangements fail. Then 
nothiug sh(.)rt of the full sweep of the external air will answer. 
For rooms in which large numbers of persons are to be collected, 
it is a primary requirement that there be openings on every side, 



APPENDIX. 271 

80 that any outside currents of air, froni wliatever direction, may 
be made use of. 

"Objections may be made to our an-anj^emcnt of windows be- 
cause of the great amount of light that would enter at them. 
That, of course, could be i-cgulated by means of blinds. The 
dii-ection of the light that strikes the pupils' books can be regulated 
in the same way. Blinds sliould be used on all the windows, be- 
cause they are far superior to curtains in admitting a free circula- 
tion of air, while excluding the direct rays of the sun ; and the 
blinds should be (jreen, because that is the color most agreeable to 
the eyes. At intermissions, and ])efore and after school, the blinds 
should be opened to admit direct sunlight, the purifying etiect of 
which is absolutely indispensable in keeping the scliool-room 
wholesome. 

" The only objection that we can see to our school-house thus 
overflowed with sunshine and fresh air, is that the children would 
so luxuriate in these essentials of physical health and vivacity, that 
they would be as restless and mischievous as the boys and girls of 
an old-fashioned country school kept in an over-ventilated log- 
house. They would need a very diiferent treatment, it is true, 
from that required to spur into activity the poor, pale-faced, auto- 
matic dolls that go through the routine performances of many of 
our public schools ; yet we must confess a strong liking for the 
spirit oi' the country school-boy." 



SCHOOL MATERIAL —Part L 



SCHOOL DESKS etc 



oj^c 



OOi^TTIBilSrTS, 



Absolute Requisites for Good Furniture, 
Accommodation Desks and Folding Chairs, 
American School Desks and Settees, 
Assembly-room Desks and Settees, - 
Box Desks, with Lids, double, - 
Box Desks, with Lids, single. 
Caution, - . . . - 

Combined Desks and Settees, 
Cornell Settee, for Primary Classes, 
Important to all who use School Furniture, 
Independent Desks and Settees, 
Introduction, - - ... 

New American Desks, - - - 

New England Desks and Folding Chairs, - 
Old Style Desks and Chairs, 
Popular School Desks and Settees, - 
Single Desks with Chairs, 
Sizes of Desks and Settees, - - . 

Wall Desks, - - - - - 



PAGE 

7 
11 
12 
14 
16 
17 

4 
12 

8 

4 
12 

5 
12 
10 
15 

9 
18 

6 
18 




Important to all who Use. Buy, Sell, or 
]\Ianiilacture School Furniture. 



IViunr all pen Ini thfcic Jvcsicutsi, I'liat I, Aauox IT. Allen, 

of Boston, Massaormsetts, hi oonsidoration ot", and pni-snant to, an Iiulontuiv nuulo 
anil oxoontod on tho SixtiHMUh dav ot Sojitombor, lSt>9, by mo and J. W. Scukk- 
MKKUOUN & Ci>., ot'tlio City. County, and Stoto of Now York, do dootaro tliat I 
liavo gnvntod to thonv tho solo right and jn-ivilogo of Mannfaotuiing and Soiling 
School I'l umtiuk, made aoooiiling to Lottovs Tatont of tho Unitod Statos, for 
Tilting Soais siij^portod by tho t-ovor. graiitod to nio on tho 5th day of Dooonibor, 
1S54. — lie-issnod on tho 15th aay of Jannary, ISGl, — and oxtondod .«•(•<» yoars fn>ni 
tho 5th day ot Dooombor, ISGS, and snbjoot to tho tonus and conditions in said 
Indontniv oontainod. 

In witnoss whoivof, I havo horonnto sot uiv hand and soal, this F.iuhtoonth i ~''^ ) 

li.S. *■ 
day of Soptomtior, a.i>. 1S69. ( ^^^ ) 

(Sigiietl) A. 11. ALLEN. 

(Wituossod) 



Tho nndoi^igncd CAl'TIOX all ]iorsons against tho nso of infringements of tho abovo- 
namod Tatonti' — which, wo boliovo, cover all tho Folding-seat School Fnrnituiv now in 
use, supported directly or remotely on the Lever priuciple. All who may use the same 
without license tivni us aiv liable for damages. 

Wo rosiiectfully solicit tho names of persons who are using infringements, without our 
license, and shall ehoorfully pay for suoli intornuition. 

AVo do not dosiiv to annoy school otlicors and others who may have innocently pur- 
chased violations of our patents; and yet it is our plain duty to protect our rights under 
the patent laws. Wo have secured Allen's Opera-seat Patents, at givat expense, tor 
our own trade ; and wo must insist upon our rights. 

Suits against tho Cities of Now York and Bix^oklyn aiv now ponding, and prcliminar)' 
proceedings are iu progress in several other eases. 

J. W. Schermerhorn & Co., Proprietors 
Of Alleu's Oponi-Soat TattMits, 

(As applied to School Fiiniiti\reV 



INTRODUCTION. 



Too many of our schools have rude, unsightly, and uncomfortable 
furniture; and yet Americans may congratulate themselves upon 
having their schools supplied with better furniture than the schools 
of any other country. The school furniture of Great Britain is to- 
day not superior to ours a quarter of a century ago, and England's 
school furniture is somewhat better than we find in most European 
countries. 

A contemporary seriously describes school furniture consisting 
of "a bench with legs long at the one end and short at the other. 
The large scholars sat upon the higher end, and the smaller were 
graded down to the lower end." We have never seen any furniture 
like this, and must confess that the contemporary dates farther back 
than we can. We do, however, distinctly remember the old-fashioned 
"bench," hastily constructed from a pine slab, fresh from the 
neighboring saw-mill. The flat, unplaned side was considered good 
enough for the seats of the urchins of those days. Cuttings from 
a sapling were inserted, bracingly, for supports. There was nothing 
to rest the wearied backs of the boys and girls of that period. 
"Writing and ciphering" facilities for the larger pupils were made 
by arranging boards slopingly around the walls of tlie house. A 
" slal> bench" was x>laced under the edge of this writing-desk, and 
those occupying the same would "face to the wall" when at work, 
and " face about" when the teacher wanted to lecture them, or display 
them to " the committee." This arrangement had its advantages as 
well as its disadvantages. If active-minded pupils were intent upon 
"eating apples," j-eading story-books, or making caricatures of the 
watchful schoolmaster, they might be "caught" by that individual 
approaching quietly from the rear. 

That style has now passed away, giving place to modern school 
furniture. Even our rural schools are demanding furniture of the 
better kinds. And our manufacturers of school material have been 
compelled to fall out of the ranks, or intelligently study the construc- 
tion of school furniture as " a fine art." 



Absolute Requisites for Good School Furniture. 



First— COMFORT. 

The seats and backs must be curved to precisely lit the natural curves of the 
bodies of the pupils. An iudilTereutly curved seat is not enough— both seat atid 
back must be curved, and properly mt'ved. 

Second— FOLDING SEATS. 

Pupils must be able to take and leave their seats iriiJiout difficulty and disturbance; 
the teacher must know that he can call up every pupil promptly, at a given signal ; 
the school-room must have eapacity for \\ght gymnastics; fre^; passages across the 
room must be allowed, with ample opportunity for cleaning the floors. 

Third— DURABILITY. 

This quality must be secured by the use of the best material, skilled toorkmen, 
and correct construction. 

Fourth— GOOD APPEARANCE. 

This quality, besides making the school-room attractive, will protect the furni- 
ture from the attacks of penknives and other destructive instruments. Good 
appearance is necessary to aid in educating taste. 

Fifth— COMFORT, First and Last. 

Correct pnysiological principles must be observed in the construction of all 
modern school furniture. 

Besides these absolute requisites, school furniture should be (1) 
economical as to price — the best need not be the most expensive; 
(3) readily taken apart, for safe and cheap transportation — the 
patented manner of '^dove-tailing" the several parts permits this, 
besides rendering the effects of sJirmkinff, sweUing, and warping 
impossible. 



S iz e S'. 



The sizes of all our styles .of School Furniture are uniform, as shown in the 
followinfj tabic. The lengths arc for desks and settees for two pupils, and are commonly 
called Double Desks and Settees. The furniture called " Children's," Ls adapted to 
pupils in infant schools; that called " Small Primary," is adapted to pupils aged from 
5 to 7 years; "Primary," to those aged 7; ,to IQ years; "intermediate," 10 to 13; 
"Grammar," 12 to 15; "High School," 15 to I'J; "Academic," to adults. Due 
allowance should be made for the variable sizes of children in different. latitudes. Great 
care should be used to avoid selecting sizes too large .for. the grade of the pupils. This 
mistake occurs more frequently than that of grading.tlie. desks and settees too low. We 
all know that we rest better in a low chair than in a high one; 





L£N(iTU. HEIGHT OP DESK.'. 


WIDTH'OF DESK 


HEIGHT OP SEAT. 


Children's, 


3G 


inches. 


18 inches'. 






10^' inches; 


9j, inches. 


Small Primary, 


36 




20. 








10 




11 '" 


Primary, 


30 




22f 








12 




12 " 


Intermediate, 


30 




25 








15 




I3i " 


Grammar School, 


42 




26i 








15 




15 " 


High School, 


42 




27i 








15 




I6i " 


Academic, 


42 




29| 








15 




17. " 


Settees for rear rows- 


-any size, to 


match the 


desks. 








Desk height is measured at front— 


-back 


edge 


is 


U 


inches 


higher.. 


Seat height is 



ineasurcd at yron<, with a comfortable pitchofaboutl^^inche's 

Single Desks intended for one pupil, have same dimensions as double desks, except 
length, which varies from 18 to 24 inches. 

The average space required on 'the! floor. of the. school-room for Children's, Small 
Primary, Primary, and Intermediate sizes,,'is 25. by 36'inches. 

The Grammar, High School, and^ Academic,- require'about 28 by 42 inches.\ 

The width of the aisles must depend^pon.circumstance^. Folding seats require less 
waste of space for aisles than fixed seats. 18 to 24 inches is ample. 

Of each style of desks and seats we have the sizes named at the bottom of the page on 
wliich the said style is described. 

Price Lists will be sent on application .with stamp, j,. In calling for price lists, it is 
well to mention the number and grade of pupils requiring furniture. 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



STYLE A. 
The American Settees, with Slate-Rests and Book-Boxes. 




1. The " Coruell" Settee, for Primary and Intermediate Classes. 

The men and women of to-day can readily reeall the aelios and pains inflicted upon tlicni 
by the ill-shaiied furnituiv of thirty years ago. The school officers of that period were apt 
to consider anything good enough for " the smaller scholars," and to act with disivgard to 
the comfort of children, which has done more to civate positive "hatred of school" than 
any other one cause. 

The style illustrated in the cut is as easy and comfortable as it is possible to construct 
school furnituiv. The shape of the seat and back is pivcisely adapted to tit the natural 
outlines of the persons of pupils. This shape, together with the jiropcr pitch of the seat, 
tends to coni]Hi an cnrt posture, which is sure to induce better health and habits than can 
be expected when uncomfortable furnituiv is used. 

Stj/lf A is intended moiv especially for those in the childivn's and primary departments, 
and for those in the intennediate department who have not yet attained tt> the " copy-lH>ok'' 
degree. The arm, or " slate-n?st," is sufficient for sujiporting the books and slates of the 
children, who can rest upon it when they lean forward. The book-boxes beneath the seat 
arc ample for putting away books, slates, etc., when not in use. 

This stylo is economical as to price and as to space reqniivd. It is constructed under 
the dove- tailed patent, hence is very substantial, and being easily taken apart ("knocked 
down"), may l>e cheajdy shipped, and readily jnit together at its destination. 

It is made of thnr ha'iihts — 1, Cuildukn's; 2, Tkimaky; and 3, Ixtermedi.kte ; in 
lengths of 3 ft., 4^ ft., 6 ft., T.J ft., and ft., with slate-rests for two, tluvc, four, five, or six 
pupils ivspix'tively. 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



Popular School Desks and Settees. 

STYLE B. 

{Munger's Patents, and Allen's Oj^era Seat Patents.) 



The inventor of The New American School Desks and Settees, which have 
become so widely famous, devised this style in response to the demands of school officers 
who want good school furniture at cheaper rates ifuin any heretofore nvule. At the same 
time, in this cheaper style many of the superior points of the original invention have been 
preserved, substantial wood ends being used in place of the expensive iron frames. 




They are comfortaJAe — the backs and seats having the proper curve. They have the 
indispensable folding seats. They are constructed under the " dove-tailing" patent, and 
hence may be shipped flat, and readily put together by unskilled persons. No more sub- 
stantial desks than those are made. Some may object to the wood ends, which certainly 
are not as light and graceful as the iron frames. In many sections, however, they have 
found great favor, and are pronounced as good as the more expensive furniture. 

The following are the regular sizes by name and by number ; the dimensions in detail 
are given in another place : 



4. Children'fs Desk and Settee— for two Pupils. 

5. Primary, " " 

6. Intermediate, " " 
1. Grammar, " " 

8. Uvih School, " 

9. Academic, " " 
10. Settees for Rear Rows " " 



4i. Children's D. and S.— for one Pupil. 

5i. Primary. " " 

6|. Intermediate, " '* 

'l\. Grammar, " " 

8i. High School, " " 

9i. Academic, " "/ 

lOj. Settees for Rear Rows " " 



10 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



STYLE C. 



The New England School Desks, 



WITH FOLDING CIIAIES. 




This stylo is so callod boonuso School Desks of similar appoaviinoo have long been 
popular in many parts of Now England. 

The dosk, simplo and ooonomioal in oonstruotion, has its sovoral parts joined on the 
" doYC-ttuled" plan, so that it may bo paekod ontiivly tlat, and put up at its destination. 
Hence its transportation is exceedingly cheap. The several parts tit perfectly, and the 
application of a little glue to the dove-tailing pai'ts when they are put together, makes them 
perfectly tirni and substantial. 

The Folding Chaik is a Novelty, which grj\tifies the wants of those who demand 
the itidivuiiuil as well as the foldhuj seat. The curves of the backs and seats ai"c the same 
as those of our " New American Pesks and Settees." 

Those chaii-s ai"o made foliiiiii], under the patents of A. H. Allen, the inventor of the 
famous Opera Seat. We have puR'hased the exclusive xise of his patents, in their applica- 
tion to school furnitun\ at a great expense. Toachoi-s and school othcors who have most 
caivfuUy and intelligently studied the wants of modem schools, demand Folhino Se.vts. 

Stijic C may bo ivcouuneiuled for giMieral utility and aviwmi/, but not for beauty. 
Though hotter, in appearance, than the cut ivprosents, yet it cannot Iv depended npon 
to improve the taste of the rising generation. 

There aa^ five sizes, for two pupils: — 11. Primary, — 12. Intermediate, — 13. 
Grammar, — II. High School, and 15. Academic. Also five sizes, for one pupil : — 
lli^. Primary, — 12^. Intermediate, — 13J. Grammar, — 14^. High School, — ISJ. 
Academic. The dimensions are the same as appear in the table of standanl sizes. 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 

STYI^E I>. 

The Accommodation School Desks, 

WITU TUE WILCOX FOLDING CIIAIltS. 



11 




This style (D) h a considerable improvement on style C, and is somewhat more ex- 
pensive. 

The Dksk has strong iron frames, wliieh g^ive it a light and graceful appearance. All 
the iron parts dovetail into the wood-work, making it convenient to pack \i flat, and put 
it together at its destination. This manner of joining the parts strengthens the desk, as 
tli(; wood and iron mutually brace and stiffen each other. 

The Chaik, devised by Mr. Wilcox, is a success. It has the proper comfortable shape — 
both back and seat being curved ; it affords independent seats for eaeli pupil — which some 
tca^;hers prefer ; and its ajjpearance is good. 

Its merits, compared with the "pedestal chair," need not be seriously discussed. Ped- 
estal chairs invariably become loose because of the severe strain ujfon the screws which 
(at first) fasten them to the floor. Their construction permits this — and they then prove 
very noisy and annoying. The Wilcox chair can have no difficulty of this kind. It« 
construction renders It absolutely firm under all circumstances. It is well balanced, and 
even without screws, it will do quite as well as ordinary household chairs. Morwjver, it ia 
FOLDING — the many advantages of which need not be named here. Well-informfA eduai- 
tors fiverywhiKre (hrwirul fobhny umls. 

Of this style there are the following, whose dimensions are given in the "table of stand- 
ard sizes." 



16. Primary Dock and Chairs— for two Pupils. 

17. Intcrrncdiate, '" " 

18. (irammar, " " 

19. HiKh Hchool, " " 

20. Academic, " " 



1 Bf Primary T), and Chair— for o«« Pnpll. 
1 7i. Int<;rrn(;diatc, " 



1 Hi. Grammar, 
1 9i. Hi{,'h School, 
20i. Academic, 



12 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



STYLES E & F. 



The New American School Desks and Settees. 

(lUunger's Patents, witli Allen's Opera-Seat Patent.) 




E. Combined Desk and Settee. 



F. Independent Oesk and Settee. 



The exact physiological curvature of the seat and back has not been easy to 
find. — Miicli time was spent in gnidual approaches to this curve. Different models were sub- 
jected to the criticism of teachers and school-cliildren, and the still severer test of use. The 
faults of each fomi were carefully noted and corrected, until their various and often obscure 
defects were eliminated and the proper curve determined. That it was no easy task to 
discover the shape universally adapted to tlie persons of old and young — which would su])- 
port the body just where it needs supporting, and leave it free at every other point — is well 

attested by the almost universal failure of cabinet-makers 
and upholsterers to devise a chair, settee, car-seat, or 
church-pew that one can sit on half an hour without 
positive discomfort. The commonest faults (where a 
cuiTc is attempted) are too great a curA'ature, or a mis- 
placed one — a cinxc that strikes the back too high up, 
gouging the sitter under the shoulder-blades, or one bear- 
ing upon the shoulders like a yoke. Fig. .r represents a 
seat, curiously contrived to miss the end intended. It is a 
copy of a ])ortion of the engraved illustration of a certain 
" Sofii-backed" school seat. A more elaborate contrivance 
for forcing children to sit on the small of the back would 
be hard to find. Every one of the curves is just the reverse 
of what it should be. We have seen School Furniture 
mth a boasted " curved back," having the edges of the back rudely " rounded off" a little, 
regardless of the natural outlines of the bodies of the pupils. That, however, is a farce 
which can hardly satisfy the enlightened wants of the educators of the ])resent day. 
The cur^^es «f the backs and seats of Styles E and F are faultless. [over] 




Pig. X (Bad Form). 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



13 




The folding seat is the nicest adaptation of Allen's Opera-scat patent 
yet conceived of. It is perfectly simjile and noiseless. The lever works in a mortise, 

inaccessible to the fingers or dress of the 
children. And whether the seat is down, 
or folded up, it rests upon rubber cush- 
ions, which, besides making it noise- 
less, yield a grateful spring to the occu- 
pants. It is difficult to show on paper 
the nice points of this folding scat. The 
accompanying cut may perhaps give some 
idea of it; but the thing itself must be 
seen and used to be perfectly understood 
and appreciated. 

The doie-taiiing patent is 
used for attaching fhe wood and iron. 
This prevents all warping or checking of 
the wood, and allows the furniture to be 
Independent Settee, with Book-Box. readily taken apart and safely packed for 

shipment, at about one-fifth of the usual freight charges on set-up furniture. 

Style E is the best Combined Desk and Settee made. Its great 
width of base ; the perfect balance of all its parts, rendering it steady even without the use 
of floor screws ; and the rigid union of the wood and iron, make it so strong and firm that 
the chief, if not the only objection to combined desks and settees, liability to "joggle," 
is reduced to almost nothing. 

Style F has been prepared for those who have insuperable objections to combined desks 
and settees. Such persons will recognize a special triumph in the Independent 
Desks and Settees. These will give the same appearance to the School Room as 
Style E. The Desks and Settees stand close together, are perfectly symmetrical, and yet 
are entirely distinct. No space is wasted, and no desk and settee touch each other. 

In Styles E and F the space for books is ample on a shelf beneath the desk-top. In 
the double desks this shelf is divided in the middle by a partition. The ends of the desks 
arc open-work to permit easy inspection by the teacher, and prevent the introduction of 
contraband articles. 

These styles are considered complete to the minutest details. They are careful and 
artistic combinations of all the ab."3olute requisites of perfect School Furni- 
ture. They are unrivalled in comfort, in strength and durability, in finished 
workmanship, and in graceful and elegant appearance. 

Men of the best mechanical ideas and those who have given most study to modern School 
Furniture are the loudest in their pr.iises. 

The Combined has the following dimensions in '"table of standard sizes :" 
for two Pupils. 



21. Children's Degk and Settee 

22. Primary, " 

23. Intermediate, " 

24. Grammar, '• 

25. Hijrh School, " 

26. Academic, " 

27. Settees for Rear Rows, 

28. Ditto with Book-Box, 



21}. Children's D. and S.— for one Pnpil. 

22*. Primary, " " 

23J. Intermediate, " 

24i. Grammar, " " 

2.5|. HiKh School, 

26*. Academic, " " 

271. Settees for Rear Rows, " 

28*. Ditto with Book-Cook, " 



The Independent : 

29. Primary Desk and Chairs— for two Pupils. 

30. Intermediate, " " 

31. Grammar, " " 

32. HiRh School, " " 

33. Academic, " " 

34. Settees for Rear Rows, " 

35. Ditto with Book-Box, " 



29*. Primary D. and Chair— for Ortf Pnpil. 
30*. Intermediate, '; 

31*. Grammar, " " 

32*. High School, " " 

33*. Academic, " " 

34*. Settees for Rear Rows, " 

35*. Ditto with Book-Box, " 



u 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



STYLE a. 

Assembly-Room Desks and Settees 

(Muuger's Patents Avith Allen's Opera-Seat Patent.) 




It is often necessary that the School-room be used for a general Assembly-room — for 
Sunday-school, Public Lectures, and other purposes. Hence Furniture which will permit 
tlie §c]iooI-rooin to toe readily traiisforincd into an Asseinbly- 
room, has long been desired. Inventors in this Country and in Great Britain have 
tried their skill ; but with clumsy and expensive results. The achievement illustrated in 
the cuts is a decided success. 

Economy of cost and space ; strength and simplicity of construction ; ease and rapidity 
of changing a School-room of Desks into an Assenibly-rooni of Settees : all 

have been considered and accomplished. With this 
Furniture it is easy for the School-room to serve the 
double purpose of School and Publfc Hall. 

The top is easily let down by the pupils, 
while seated in their places. The book-boxes 
are located as shown at A A A, extending the entire 
length of the Desks, giving ample book and slate 
room. When the Desks are folded tlie book-boxes 
are closed, keeping out the dust. Book-boxes may 
also be attached beneath the seats — as shown on 
Settees on another page. When desired they may 
be supplied mth locks. 

When Desk and Seat are both folded, less than 
one foot in width is occupied, leaving ample space for 
gymnastic exercises, passages, etc. (See Cut.) 
The folding Seat (Allen's Opera-seat patent), with 
the Comfortable Curves of both back and seat, which have made the Wew American 
School Desks and Settees so mdely famous, do good service in this style. 
The Assembly Desks and Settees have five sizes, see table of standard sizes : 




36. Primary Desk and Settee— for two Pupils. 

37. Intermediate, " " 

38. Grammar, " " 

39. High School, " " 

40. Academic, " " 

41. Settees for Rear Rows', " 
4*. Ditto with Book-box, " 



36J. Primary D. and Settjee— for (?;i€ Pupil. 

37j. Intermediate, " 

38i. Grammar, " 

3 9 J. Hi?h School, " 

40i. Academic, " 

4li. Settees for Rear Rows, 

42f. Ditto with Book-box, 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



15 



STYLE H. 



'*01d Style" Desks and Chairs. 




We are ready to supply the " Old Style" Desks and Chairs, though we do not care to 
recommend the uncomfortahle and inconvenient chairs, and do not deny that distant cus- 
tomers will find the transportation expenses a very important item. Yet, many School 
Officers have long endured this style of Furniture, and many others may find no insupera- 
ble objections to it : and some- 
times, for special reasons, may 
[irefer it. 

The iron-work is strong and 
plain, having no points nor angles 
to tear the dress and catch the 
dust. 



Besides the chairs which appear 
in the cut above, the " Circular 
Back Pedestal" chairs, and the 
" Extra School" chairs are appro- 
priate for use with these desks. 
The three styles are about the 
same price. 





Circular Back Pe- 
destal Chair. 



Extra School Chair. 



[Sometimes we have of this and eimilar styles second-hand lots, but little used, and " as good as 
new," which we can supply " at bargains." School Ofllcers desiring to exchange them for modern 
styles, place them in storage for us to dispose of at " a sacrifice." We will not attempt to sell 
them to customers who cannot call and examine them for themselves.] 



There are five sizes : 

43. Primary Desk and Chairs— for two Pupils. 

44. Intermediate, '" "■ 

45. Grammar, " " 
48. High School, " 

47. Academic, " " 



43 J. Primai-y D. and Chair— for o?!« Pupil. 
44|. Intermediate, '• " 

45*. Grammar, " " 

46*. High School, " " 

47}. Academic, " " 



16 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



STYLE I. 

Bo:: Desks with Lids. 




This style is an old favorite, yet in fair demand. It suits certain tastes, and meets the 
requirements of certain circumstances which other styles may not seem to satisfy. 

We make these desks as handsomely as their construction will permit. The iron sup- 
ports are substantial and plain — entirely without angles and jioints to tear the dress and 
afford lodgement for dust. They are fitted to screw fast to the floor, though they may be 
used without the floor-screws. They arc well braced — (our artist has not clearly shown 
the braces in the cut). 

Tlie box jiart is well made of thoroughly seasoned wood. Tlie lids have brass hinges, 
and close on rubber cushions to avoid noise. 

The book-box beneath the lids is divided into two compartments in the double desks, 
each of which is supplied with a little shelf for pens, pencils, etc, and each lid has a brace 
for holding it when open. The top is properly inclined for writing. The level part of the 
top is grooved for pens and pencils, and is bored for inkwells. 

The Lids are made plain, and finished in the usual manner, or they are covered with 
green enamelled cloth, as may be ordered. 

Any chairs, movable, fixed, or folding, may be used with these desks. Chairs are sold 
separately. 

There are five sizes — heights are given in table of standard sizes 



4S. Primary Box D. with Lids— for ^era Pupils. 

49. Intermediate, " 

.50. Oraminar, " " 

.'il. niph School, " " 

52. Academic, " " 



48^ Primary B. D. with Lids— for One Pnpil. 
40^ Intermediate, 
50J. Grammar, 
51*. ITiirh School, 
52i. Academic, 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



17 



STYLE I— (Continued). 

Single Box Desks with Lids. 




The cut represents the Box Desks with Lids ndapted to one pupil. They arc con- 
structed precisely like those intended for two pupils, with same dimensions except as to 
length. Any kind of chairs may be used with these desks : — we have chairs to suit all 

tastes, and all purses. 

Most educators appreci- 
ate the varied advantages 
of the folding chairs, and 
insist on having them. Of 
these there are two kinds — 
the new American fold- 
ing chair and the Wilcox 
folding chair — both of 
which are made under the 
Allen Opera- Seat Pa- 
tents. 

Five sizes of these desks 
and chairs, uniform with 
heights in table of standard 





New American Chair. 



Wilcox Chair. 



[Chairs appearing on these two pages (representing Box Desks with Lids) are named as follows— 
we enumerate them in the order in which they appear: (a) Circular Back, Cane seat; 
(b) Circular Back, Wood seat; (e) Kxtra. Seliool ; (d) Curved Back, Cane 
seat; (e) New American Folding; (f) Wilcox Foldin;^.] 



.^3. Primary B. D. with Lid— for me Pupil. 

54. Intermodiate, " " 

55. Grammar, " " 



5e. Hish School B. D. with Lid— for one Pupil. 
57. Academic, " " 



18 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



Single Desks, like Style D, with Chairs. 




Econom}' of cost and space, and sometimes other considerations, induce school officers 
and teachers generally to purchase double desks, to accommodate two pupils. However 
desks for single pupils are frequently called for. Hense, all of the desks shown in thi: 
catalogue are made single, for one pupil, as well as double, for two pupils. 

It is not necessary to occupy our pages to show the several styles of single desks, since 
the views which we give of tlie double desks are sufficient to give correct impressions of th( 
appearance of tlie desks when made for one pupil instead of two — the difference being in 
length only. 

The above cut represents tiie single desk of Style D, shown on page 11. 

Anj' style of chairs to suit the requirements of the case may be used. We have alreadj 
illustrated several kinds of movable, fixed, and folding chairs — to which we would 
now refer. Sizes are uniform with Style D. 



STYLE J. 

Wall Desks. 

Desks like that shown in the accompanying cut are 
occasionally very convenient for placing around the 
walls of the school-room, or in spaces which may 
sometimes be required to be cleared for aisles. The 
top readily folds down, like the tops of the " Assem- 
bly-Desks," to make a free passage when required. The 
top, in folding down, incloses the book-box A. They 
are made to order in any required lengths. 



There are five sizes : 

58. Primary. 

59. Intermediate. 

60. Grammar. 



61. Hiph School. 

62. Academic. 




SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



19 



STYLE K. 



Ths New York Desk-Settee. 




Tlie Patent Desk-Settees, illustrated above, are used very extensively in the Public 
Schools of New York City. They have been in use since 1864, and have been very 
severely and satisfactorily tested. 

They have two seats — the upper seat being arranged to turn up and over to forni a 
desk, the lower seat being occupied by the pupil when writing, and the upper scat when 
the top is folded down, to convert the desks into settees. 



This cut gives 
the same desks in 
another position, 
and shows the 
sliding frame for 
holding books, 
slates, or copies for 
drawing, etc., etc. 
When not in use, 
the frame is passed 
down behind the 
seat. They all 
have book -boxes 
beneath the seat, 
book-racks attach- 
ed to the backs, 
inkwells, etc. 
They are very substantially constructed. When desired, they will be supplied with 

plain backs, in place of the balluster backs shown in the cuts. There are the usual sizes- 

for all grades of schools : 

63, Primary; 64, Intermediate; 65) Grammar; 66, High School; 67, Academic. 




'20 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



Normal and Collegiate Desks. 




68. Plain Box Desk, with Lid aud Brace for holding it open, 

Substantiiil iron supports, thoroughly braced. The top is grooved for pencils and pens, 
and is boivd for ink-wells. It is made of ash or cherry, with plain or cloth top as may be 
dcsiivd. 
The Chair shown in the cut is Oak, Curved Top, Cane Seat. 




69. Similar to 68, with more elaborate iron supports. Same price. It is exjxx-ted that 
chairs will be selected to suit the wants of the purchaser. These desks are quite as well 
adapted to one style of chair as another. 

The Cliair shown in the cut is the Wilcox Folding Chair. 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



21 



Normal and Collegiate Desks. 




70. Turned Post, Box Desk, 
With lid and brace, enamelled cloth top. It is usually ma^lc of Black Walnut, but will 
\xi supplied in Ash or Cherry, when desired. It is specially desiraWc when the desks are 
require! to be movable. The Chair shown is the Extra School. 




71. The New American Collegiate Desk 
Ifl a very superior desk, with a drawer, book-rack, etc. The Chair is the New American 
Folding Chair. Of course any chairs may be used with 70 and 71. 

The four preceding desks, Nos. 68, 09, 70, and 71, are supplied double, for two pupils, 
as well as single, as shown in the cuts. 

Besides the desks here enumerated, all of our many styles are made large 
enough to adapt them to Normal and Collc^ate unch. 



22 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



Lecture-Room Settees for Seminaries, Colleges, 

KOEMAL SCHOOLS, AND UNIYEKSITIES. 




72. The Cornell Lecture-Room Settee 

V/as originally devised and constructed for Cornell University. Its use there has been 
highly approved by the president, fiiculty, students, and visitors. And it is in most satis- 
factory use in several of the first Colleges, Theological Seminaries, Normal Schools, and 
other prominent institutions. 

The settee itself is the same as our New American Settee. To this is .attached, at 
intervals to suit the circumstances of the case, desks, suitable for students' tise in taking 
notes. Tliese are strongly supported by ornamental cast-iron brackets, front and rear. 

Settees arc estimated by the foot at prices shown in our price lisf. When book-box is 
attached (as in cut) 20 cents per foot additional is charged. Writing desks (with 
brackets) for each student, $1.00. 

They are shipped flat, or " knocked down," making transportation expenses scarcely 
one-tenth of that on ordinary settees. 




The Cornell EJKamination Table 



Was constructed at the suggestion of Hon. A. D. White, President of Cornell University. 
It contains no drawer for the concealment of papers, and folds flat for compact storage 
when not required for examination purposes. A hundred may be put away in a moderate 
size closet. 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



23 



READING STANDS. 





36. 

The Cuts 36 and 37 illustrate Stagg's Patent Revolving Reading Stands. 

Cut 36 shows a stand entirely folded up. It is thus adapted to a variety of school, 
library, office, or household uses. 

37 shows it with book -rack elevated and occupied by a book. The top serves as a 
brace, as well as a sloping desk on which the reader may make his notes and memoranda. 
The book is held open by nicely-adapted fingers. Price, $10.00. 




The Lecturer's Reading Stand (38) 

Is a complete book - rest for the public 
reader. It is readily adjusted to any height, 
and to any inclination of desk. It has elas- 
tic fingers to retain the book or manuscript. 
It is substantial in construction and elegant in 
appearance. It is a useful and ornamental 
article for the private and public library. 

In the public schools of New York city 
it is used as a Bible stand. For general 
utility it has no equal. 

For use in Sunday-schools, lecture-rooms, 
and public halls there is nothing to equal this 
reading stand. It has had fair trial, with 
satisfaction. 

The feet are of iron, shaped to give great 
stability to the stand, even when occupied by 
a heavy book. 

For shipment the feet are readily taken off 
to render transportation safe and cheap. 

Price of Lecturer's Reading Stand, 
$15.00. 



24 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 

Adjustable Stand 
Artists, Drauglitsiiieii, and Students. 




This Staiul can be adjusted to any rctnurcd heiulit. lis toji can be set at any inclina- 
tion, and by turning;- back the screw at the right, it is allowed to rotate to bring cither 
side in front. All adjnstnients aiv easily made, thns allowing it to be used when slttlne: 
or staiitllii";, with equal facility, as artist's easel, dranghtsmau's stand, or study 
tjvble. It is good for holding large books of reference. 

[t is the best thiwj for drawjlttsmni, because it enables them to turn or incline their work 
at pUvisnro. And it is (i most complete artist's easel, lor, by a touch, the light on the pic- 
ture may be entirely changed. 

It is mado almost entirely of iron, with substantial wood top, and its tasteful apiK^ar- 
anco makes it equally acceptable in the office, counting-room, library, or school-room. 

PRICKS, KTC. 

Pine Tor, st.aincd, 21x04, plain J;10 00 

Bl.\ck Walnut Tor, 2ix\!(i, casters 11 00 

Black Walnut Tor, 22x2(), monldod cdgo, castings richly bronzed. 13 50 

Bl,ack Walnut Tor, 'i^xSO, moulded edge, gold bi-oiized and oruameuted. . 15 00 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



25 



Settees for Recitation Rooms, Sunday Schools, 

PUBLIC HALLS, &c. 




82. Oommon Wood, Plain Seat, Settee — Stump Arm. 




83. Turned Spindle Back, Scooped Seat, Settee— Scroll Arm. 




84. Flat Spindle Back, Fancy Rail, Double Rounds, Scooped Seat, Settee- 
Fancy Brace Arm. 



26 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



Settees for Recitation Rooms, Sunday Schools, 

PUBLIC HALLS, &o. 




85 Fancy Flat Baluster Back, Double Fancy Turned Rounds, Scooped 
Seat, Settee — Fancy Brace Arm. 



m^ 




86. Slat Back, Cane Seat, Settee — Scroll Brace Arm, 




87. Grecian, Cane Seat, Flat Front Brace, Settee — Fancy Brace Arm. 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



27 



Settees for Recitation Rooms, Sunday Schools, 

PUBLIC HALLS, &o. 



^-. 




88. Flat Fancy Baluster and Rail, Caue Seat, Settee — Fancy Brace Arm. 




89. Fancy Cane Back and Seat, Square Rear Posts — Fancy Turned Double 
Rounds, Settee, Spindled Arm. 




90. Flat Baluster Back, Scooped Seat, Settee— Bent Arm, Spindled; with 
Folding Book-Shelf attached. 



28 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



Settees for Eecitation Eooms, Sunday Schools, 

PUBLIC MALLS, &c. 




91. Reversible, or Railroad Plain Spindle Back, Plain Seat, Settee— Bent 
^ Arm, Spindled. 




92. Reversible, Turned Spindle, Scooped Seat, Settee— Iron supports and 

Arms. 




93. Reversible, Plat Baluster, Plain Seat. Fancy Turned Posts, Settee- 
Bent Arms, Spindled. 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



29 



Settees for Recitation Rooms, Sunday Schools, 

PUBLIC HALLS, &c. 




94. Reversible, Curved Slat Back, Curved Seat, Settee— Iron Arms and 
Supports. Style to correspond with the New American Settee. 

Settees with reversible backs, cnaljlin;; the occupants to face either way, are not nn- 
common. They are known in the Iccturc-room, and in the Sunday-school, and more 
particularly in the railway car. But, hitherto, they have not been constructed with 
adjmldljle seats, as well as l^acks. It is undeniable, that; a seat, to be comfortahle, must 
pitch downward from the front edge. Comfort and physiological considerations alike 
demand this. 





>'o. 9.5. •• --. CO. 

95. Joeckel'8 Reversible, Spindle Back,- Pitching Slat Seat, Settee — Iron 

Arm.s and Supports. 

96. Joeckel's Reversible, Baluster Back, Pitching Slat Seat, Settee — Iron 

Arms and Supports, w^ith Book-Box. 

4 

Mr. Joeckel's Patent Settees have this advantage besides the back is reversed 
without turnin;^ it over. It is suspended on a pivot, like a pendulum, and is easily 
changed, at the same time giving the seat the proper pitch, and holding it securely in 
position. Strength and elegance have not been overlooked. 



30 



SCUOOL FUUNITUIIK. 



Settees for Recitation Rooms, Sunday Schools, 

1^ U li 1^ I C HALLS, & c . 





97. The Wilcox Settee has a Folding Seat, (mulor Allen's Opera-seat patent), 
cun-od slat back and iron sujiports. It is a elioapor form of the New American 
Settee described in another pVicc. It lias the same <;eneral advantages as the New Ameri- 
can, and ean be shipped — "knocked down" — just as safely, and cheaply. 




New American Settee — Seat folded up. 

The Wilcox Settee folds just as compactly as the New American shown in 
the cut, giving ample space for standing, or for passages, sweeping, etc. 

And again, if the hall is to be clcanni of settees lor any special jinrposes, these settees 
may4)e most compactly stored, each settee reqniring only two inches of space in width. 

The Wilcox Settee, and the New American Settee are graded to suit children and adults 
of all si/.es. The regtdar lengths of these settees are 6 feet, 7 feet, 8 feet, 9 feet, and 10 
fcot. All other lengths made to order. 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



31 



Settees for Recitation Rooms, Sunday Schools, 

PUBLIC HALLS, &c. 




98. The New American Settee has a curved fancy slat back, and a curved 
seat — the curve being the same as that which has made the New American Scliool 
Desks and Settees so widely famous for their comfort. The wood and iron are dove-tailed 
together under Mr. Hunger's patents — the advantages of which are obvious. The 
§eat is folding, under Allen's Opera-scat patent. 

The several peculiar advantages of this settee make it without an equal, and greatly 
superior for many purposes. 





The lever device for folding, as now constructed, is more clearly shown in the accom- 
panying enlarged cuts. The lever is pivoted on a strong bolt, and works noiselessly in a 
mortise, inaccessible to the fingers or dress : and whether the seat is up or down it rests on 
rubber cushions. 



32 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 



New American Settee for Primary Schools, 



ALSO SETTEE WITH FOLDING ARMS. 




99. New American Settee, Primary-j Folding Seat, Book-Box. 

For primary schools these frequently supply a convenient, comfortable, and economical 
pui-pose. Sometimes a book-rack is attached to the back of the settee. 




100. New American Settee, Folding Seat, and Folding Arms. 

This style was constructed at the suggestion of William Ballantyne, Esq., of Washing- 
ton, D. C. It has peculiar advantages for those who want a Folding Settee with 
Anns which readily fold with the Seat. 



SCHOOL MATERIAL— Part II. 
TEACHERS' DESKS, Etc. 

oonsrTE3:Nra?s- 

PAGE 

Bells — Academy, School, and Church, .... - 49 

Book Shelves— Portable, -------- 50 

Portable, with Writing-desks, .... 51 

Chairs for Teachers : — 

Windsor, Bent Top, Extra School, - - - - - 34 

Curved Top, " Bell," English Cottage, etc., - - ... 35 

Grecian, Continental, Prescott, etc., •• - - - - 36 

Library, Revolving — Four Styles, - ... 37 

Students', Classical, Cornell, - - - - - - 38 

Desks for Teachers : — 

Black Walnut, Turned Posts, No. 3, - - . - 39 

Brewer Desk, No. 13, - - - - - - ' ^^, 

Commissioner's Desk, No. 19, - * - - - - 45 

Department Desk, No. 17, - - - - - - - 45 

Guilford Desk, No. 6, 41 

Home Desks, Nos. 31, 32, 33, - - - - - - 48 

Household Desks, Nos. 34, 35, 48 

Library Desk, or Flat Top, No. 11, 43 

Maydo Desk, Plain, No. 1, - - - - - - 39 

Maydo Desk, Cloth Top, No. 2, 39 

Model Desk, No. 8, - - 42 

New American, Small, No. 4, ------ 40 

New American, Larger, No. 5, - - - . - - 40 

New Model, No. 9, 42 

Organ Desk, No. 36, - - - - - - " 49 

Todd Desk, No. 7, - - - - , - - - 41 

Tremont Platform Desk, No. 15, - . - - - 44 

Library — Cases, .-------- 46 

Chairs, .-------37 

Tables, 46 

Tables for Teachers, Seven Kinds, ....-- 47 

Teacher's Lamp — St. Germain, .... . - - 52 

Teacher's Waste Basket, .--...- 38 




TEAOHEKS' CHAIRS. 





1. Common Windsor, Wood Seat. 2. Windsor, Wood Seat. 

(Too common and cheap for regular school (Somewhat better than No. 1, but not recom- 
use.) maided.) 





3. Bent Top, Wood Seat. 
(A cheap and Btix)ng chair.) 



4. "Extra School." 
(A well-known chair improved. 



TEACHERS' CHAIRS. 



35 





5. Curved Top, Cane Seat. 6. "Bell" Bannister. 

(A very good chair, much used in schools.) (Similar to No. 5, costing a little more.) 





7. " Square" Top, Cane Seat. 8. Wood Seat, Bent Arms, with Rods. 

(Somewhat better than Nos. 5 and 6.) (A style not preferred by ladies.) 





9. English Cottage. 



10. Oane Seat, Bent Arms, with Rods. 

( Similar in style to No. 8.) 



36 



TEACUEKS CUAIKS. 




11. Grecian, Half Arms. 




13. Continental, Cane Seat. 





12. Continental, Wood Seat. 
(A durable and coinfortalile eliair.) 




14. Banister. 




15. Prescott Arm-Chair. 
(A favorite in New York City schools.) 



16. Brace Arm. 
(A good chair for ladies.) 



teachers' chairs 



37 




19. Common Arm, Wood Seat. 
(Revolving pivot.) 





18. Library, New Style. 




20. Douglas, Bent Arms. 
(Revolving pivot.) 




21. Library, Cane Seat and Back. 22. Crescent Cane Seat, Spindle Back. 
(Revolving screw.) (Revolving screw.) 



38 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



Teachers' and Students' Chairs, etc. 




student's Chair. 




Student's Classical Chair. 



23 is an old favorite, made in a very thorough and substantial manner. 

24 has a wider and larger desk attached, which moves on a bolt passing through the 
arm of the chair. It is intended to hold a lexicon, grammar, and another book or two, 
and will be found specially convenient for students studying classics. 




25. "Cornell" Chair. 




Waste Paper Basket 



25 is a vciy strong chair, with desk attached. It may be screwed to the floor ; but will 
stand well without the screws. For shipping it can be taken apart, and packed flat. 

It will be found useful as a Teacher's Chair in the School Room, a Study Chair at home, 
or a Student's Chair in the College or University Lecture Room. In lengths for several 
students it is used with great satisfaction in Cornell University, in Rutgers College, in 
several Theological Seminaries, and in other first-class Educational Institutions. 

26. The Waste Paper Basket is a necessary companion to the desk of teachers and others 
who value tidiness. The cut illustrates only one style, made of " round wjllow, crossbar 
work, plain" — several sizes — price 60 to .75. 

There are elaborate fancy styles and shapes, colored, varying in price $2.00 to $5.00. 



TEACHEKS' DESKS. 





1. Maydo Desk, Plain Top. 2. Maydo Desk, Cloth Top. 

(Size, 18 in. by 24 inches.) (Size, 18 in. by 24 inclies.) 

These are the smallest, plainest, and cheapest desks made for teachers. The supports 
may be taken off for shipment, making transportation cheap. They are recommended 
only in cases where the argument of economy must prevail. 




3. Black Walnut, Turned Supports. 

(Size, 22 in. by 12 inches.) 

This is a neat desk, with more capacity than Nos. 1 and 2, and yet very cheap. How- 
ever, eveiy teacher should have a larger desk than this. 



40 



teachers' desks. 




4. New American, Small Size, One Drawer. 

(Size, 25 in. b3- 27 inches.) 
This is specially adapted for use in small class-rooms. It occupies very little space, and 
has unusual capacity, considering its size. It is thoroughly braced, and stands very 
tirmly. It is precisely like No. 5, fully described below, except that it is shorter, having 
only one drawer, while No. 5 has two. The discrepancy in the appearance of the two 
arises irom the fact that No. 5 is drawn on a sniallcr scale. 




5. New American, Regular Size, Two Drawers. 

(Size, 25 in. by 42 inches.) 
An excellent desk foi- the class-room. The book-rack is original, sunple, and convenient. 
It allows the teacher reference books at hand, yet never in the way, while globe and call- 
bell, and the indispensable Dictionary, have places within easy reach. Drawers, with 
locks and keys, aiford security for private papers, stationery, records, etc. It is pro\'ided 
with two ink-wells, one for black and one for red ink, so placed that ink cannot get from 
them into the drawers. This desk has met with general favor in the schools of New York 
City and elsewhere. It is economically packed for shipping. It has been patented. 



TEACHERS' DESKS. 



41 




6. The Guilford Desk. 

(Size, 24 in. by 45 inches.) 

This is a very convenient and graceful desk, with fair capacity. It contains two drawers 
and a book-box. It has all the necessary qualities of a good desk, and can be recom- 
mended for the purpose to which it is adapted. Its iron supports can be readily taken oif 
for safe and cheap shipment. 




7. The Todd Desk. Two Drawers and Book-box. 

(Size, 24 in. by 45 inclies.) 

This desk has two drawers and a book-box of unusual capacity beneath the lid. Besides 
the two drawers and pigeon-holes shown in the cut, the book-box is divided into small 
compartments under the level part of tlie top, for putting away papers, etc. It is an ex- 
cellent desk for school purposes, and has had large demand. 



42 



TEACHKHS DESKiS. 




8. The Model Desk. Four Drawers and Book-Box. 

^Si.A'. 01 in. by i"<0 iiu-hos.') 
This is a hamlsoiuo ilosk. It is lUiuio of ash. trinnnod witli black walnut, tinishod in 
panols, tivnt. ivar. and onds. havin^: a roniarkabiy -j-aootid and livolv appoaraiioo. It 
has four drawers, wido book-ln^x bouoath the lid, with ample spaeo for'books aud papei-s 
on both sules of the wvitiinr surface. 




9. The New Model Desk. 

It has the size and ca]iaoity. with the general appearance, of No. S, thon-:h plainer and 
stronger. For this reason it will generally be prefenvd. 



10. The New Model Desk, made of Black Walnut. 



teachers' dksks. 



43 




11. Teacher's Desk, with Flat Top, Eight Drawers. 

(Size, SM in. by 02 inclicH.) 
This is an elaborately finished desk, intended for the principal's platform, the side to tlie 
school bcin^ inclosed. It is made of beautiful grained ash, trimmwl with black walnut, 
and panelled in front and at the ends with fine black walnut trimmings. It has eight 
drawers, of varied sizes, while the flat top gives ample space for papers, etc. Enamelled 
cloth covers the top. 



12. The Same, made of Black Walnut, Billiard Cloth Top. 




13. The Brewer Desk. 

(Size, 24 in. by CO inches.) 
This desk can be shipped in three sections. It seems complete in all the essential requi* 
sites of a first-class principal's desk. It is made of ash, tastefully paaellcd and trimmed 
with fine black walnut mouldinirs. 



14. The Same, made of Black Walnut. 



44 



TEACUERS' DESKS. 




15. Tremont Principal'.s Platform Desk. 

(Size, 3{) in. by 108 indies.) 

This is an eliiboratc and elegant desk, of very great cnpaeity. Its size is about three 
foot wide by nine feet long. The front contains closets for storing the books of the pupils, 
thus supplying the place of book-cases for an entire school. The doors of these closets 
arc so nicely arranged that when closed they will not be observed. 

It was originally designed and constructed for the schools of Tremont, N. Y., credit 
being due to Mv. William Herring, of the School Board, and Mr. George II. Albro, Prin- 
cipal of School No. 1. 

It is made of finely grained ash, i)anelled and trimmed with black walnut. 

The bright color and beautiful grain of the ash, which is used in constructing most of 
our teachers' desks, show to extra advantage in this desk. It is finislied, as usual with all 
our work, in shellac, and grows brighter and harder witli age. No jierson of good taste 
will l)e likelv to select for school furniture such woods as grow dark and sombre. 




Rear view of No. 15. 

Besides the ten drawers and the middle place for reconls, which show in the cut, there 
are two large book-boxes under the lids. For the purposes intended we think this desk has 
no equal. Its appearance would be creditable to any first-class school-room, and would 
harmonize with the best modern ideas of school furniture. 



16. The Same, made of Black Walnut or Mahogany. 



SCHOOL officers' DESKS, ETC. 



45 




17. Desk for " State Department of Instruction," Office of Board of Edu- 
cation, or Trustees' Room. 



18. Same, of Black Walnut, Billiard Cloth Top. 

This extensive desk is required in cities and in large towns. It is built for occupation 
on both sides. It has many compartments and drawers to accommodate vast business, 
with ample places for putting away records and account-books, and filing many papers. It 
is constructed in five parts, for convenience in shipping and in setting up. Being made to 

order, its size will lie varied to suit the dfiniv d. 




19. " Oommissioner's" Desk, Carved Black Walnut, Enamelled Cloth Top. 

(Size, 23 in. l)y 25 inchcH.) 

20. Same. Carved Black Walnut, French Polished, Cloth Top, with Gilt 

Border. 

This desk is an improvement on a desk which has been greatly admired. It is a beau- 
tiful and convenient article of office or household furniture. It has a capacious box under 
tlic lid fur books and pajjcrs, and a closet on each side, with shelves, etc. It is panelled on 
all sides. 



46 



LIBRARY CASES, TABLES, ETC. 




21. The Class-room Library Case. 

Size, four feet high above the brackets, three feet four inches wide, with movable shelves 
for books. Panelled doors. 
Other sizes and styles made to order, at reasonable prices 




22. The Library Table. 
Size, three feet by five feet. Four drawers. Made of selected ash, black walnut trim- 
mings, octagon legs. 

23. Same, made of Black Walnut, Billiard Cloth Top. 

Other sizes and stvles made to order. 



teachers' tables. 



47 




24. Teacher's Table. Plain Top, no Drawer. 

(Size, 20 iu. by 28 inches.) 

25. Teacher's Table. Plain Top, One Drawer 

(Size, 24 in. by 36 inchei?.) 

26. Teacher's Table. Enamelled Cloth Top, One Drawer, with Lock and 

Key (like Cut). 
(Size, 24 in. by 36 inches.) 

27. Same, in Black Walnut, Enamelled Cloth Top, with Gilt Border. 




28. Teacher's Table. Plain Top, Two Drawers, with good Locks and Keys. 

(Size, 24 in. by 42 inches.) 

29. Teacher's Table. Cloth Top, Two Drawers, with Locks and Keys 

(like Cut). 
(Size, 24 in. by 42 inches.) 

30. Teacher's Table. Cloth Top, Two Drawers, Black Walnut. 

(Size, 26 in. by 36 Jj.ches.) 

Any size or style to order, at proportionate prices. 



48 



SCHOOL FURNITURE. 

Home Desks for Children and Adults. 




31. A neat Home Desk for Children, black walnut, with Lock and Key. 

32. Ditto, larger, size between 31 and 33 which the cuts illustrate. 

33. For Young Ladies— large, with interior Compartments. 





34. Is a pretty and convenient desk, with larijc drawci in lower part. The upper part 
Contains two little drawers, and several compartments for hooks, writing materials, etc. 
The top has two shelves for books, ornaments, etc. The lid is hinged, and ek)ses upward 
like 35. 

35. Is larger and more elaborate, having in addition a closet underneath, with nicely 
panelled dom's. Both these desks arc ornamental as well as useful, and are highly appre- 
ciated by ladies. 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 

The Desk Organ, 



49 



'(•A'ri-;\"n I >.) 




36. Complete Teacher's Desk and Double-Reed Organ $1 10.00. 

This Teacher's Desk has a Douljle Reed Groan attached, bo that it docs not interfere 
with the uses of the Desk, occiipyin;,' no space appropriated to books, pajfcrs, etc., wliile the 
Or^^an, by tiirninj; a key, can he driiwn out all ready for use, as shown in the cut. 

Its advantages are : 1 . Economy of Hjiace, no more being required than for the desk alone 
2. Economy of cost ; the price sIkjws this. 

The Organ is made by Mason & Hamlin. 

Any of Mason & Hamlin's School, Household, and Church Organs, at manufacturers' 
best rates $55.00 to $750.00. 

Illustrated Circular, with prices, sent on aj^plication, with stamp. 





37. Academy, School, and Church BELLS, 

in great variety, from the best Bell Foundry in the country. Illustrated Catalogue sent on 
application with stamp. 



50 SCHOOL MATKUIAL. 

Portable Book Shelves- 

I. The Gardner Patent Book Eacks, Walnut, Plain Ends. 

No. '2. Si/.K— Width Vi inouks, llEuaiT PJ imuks, '^ Suki.vks— PiticK ^O.IO 

3. •« " IT) '• " ir. •• i •• " 1.00 

•1. >' •• IS '• " IS " :5 *• " 1.50 

.-,. " '• --U " " SI '• S " " l.SO 

i;. '• " 21 '• " 24 " 3 " " . . 2.20 

7. " " 27 " " 37 " 3 " " 2.85 

S. " " 30 " " SO " 3 '' " 3.G5 

9. •' " Sli " " 3(i " 4 " " 5.20 

10. " " -"Jl " " -IS '■ •'■' " " 0.45 

11. " " 3(i " " tU •' (i " " 7. SO 

12. '' " 8G " " 70 •• 7 " " 9. Go 




11. 



The Gardner Patent Portable Book Back, Fancy Enas 

(Like cut). 

HT 19 INCHES, 2 Shki-tks— Price ^1.00 



No. 13. Si7 


E- 


-\\ 


IDTH 


1-2 


NCHES, 


IlEI 


14. 






•• 


15 






15. 






" 


IS 


" 




16. 






" 


21 


" 




17. ' 






" 


24 


" 




18. ' 






" 


27 


" 




19. 






" 


SO 


" 




20. 






" 


SO 


" 




21. 






" 


34 


" 




22. 






•• 


30 


" 




23. 






" 


30 


" 





15 
IS 
21 
24 
27 
30 
80 
4S 
04 
70 



1.30 
l.SO 
2.15 
2.45 
3.20 
4.00 
5.50 
6.90 
8.25 
10.2 5 



SCHOOL MATKJIIAL. 



51 



Portable Book Shelves, 

Combined with Writing Desks. 
III. The Patent Book Case and Portable Writing Desk, 

Plain Ends. 

No. 24. WiuTO 30 INCHES, IlEiunT 6(( incheb, 6 Shelveb— Price $11.7^ 

"26. " 86 " " 76 " 7 " " 12.76 




n. The Book Case and Writing Desk combined, Fancy Ends 

(Like cut). 

No. 2«. WioTii ?A iNcuEs, nEmiiT 06 inches, 6 Shelves-Price $12.50 

^^- ■' '^^ " " 76 " 7 " " 1.1. r,o 

WITH LOCKS, 50 Cent* Extra. 

They can be taken apart instantly, without turning a screw or drawinj,' a nail, and 
can be packed as compactly for transportation as a few short Ujards. And a(,'ain, 
they may be put up for use almost as qr'V;kly. For students, teachers, libraries.'and 
many general uses, they must prove most accMjptablc. Teachers and students l>eing 
migratory, will readily appreciate their advantages. 



52 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 




The Teacher's Lamp. 

The studious, fliithful teacher requires a foitliful light to aid him in his jircparation for 
his duties. Wc have found none equal to 

JVM mmf mummm, w ©erivcam sTEsoiissfiTf^s laivip^ 

It gives a superior, steady light, and with ordinary care will emit neither smell nor smoke. 
One-twelfth or one-eighth of a heavier oil — sperm, lard, or olive — mixed with kerosene, 
makes the best and safest oil. Pratt's Astral Oil is recommended for use in this lamp. , 

Professor Joseph Henry^ of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, I). C, considers 
" it the safest and pleasantest article of the kind he has ever used. It gives a brilliant, 
unwavering light, very agreeable to the eye. It is safe, since the va])or of the petroleum 
is entirely cut off from the flame, the reservoir being at a distance from the burning point, 
and the supply tube constantly filled with the liquid." 

These lamps, being imported, may vary in price, depending upon the price of gold. We 
give prices for the i)resent only : 
No. 1.— BRASS SLIDING LAMP, 13 line burner, 7 inch shade, and chimney 

com])lete, ........ $8 50 

No. 2.— BRASS SiLlDING LAMP, 11 line burner, 6 inch shade, and chimney 

complete, ........ 7 50 

No. 1 a.— BRASS SLIDING LAMP, double burner, 7 inch shades, and chimneys 

same as No. 1 single, . . . . 16 00 

No. 1 b.— GERMAN SILVER SLIDING LAMP, 13 line burner, 7 inch shade, 

and chimney, . . . . 16 00 

Box and packing for shipment will cost $1.00 extra. 



SCHOOL MATERIAL— Part III. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 



^^Mens Sana in Corpore Sano. 



jj 



Our Gymnastic Apparatus 

Is made of well-seasoned wood, varnished and polished. Dumb-bells and Indian Clubs 

are made of maple; "Wands of white ash or black walnut ; Hand-rings are very strongly 

made of three sections— black walnut, cherry, and maple. Besides great strength, they 

have the merit of beautiful appearance. 

Dumb-bells — four sizes : price list. 

Nos. 1 and 2, for children per pair, $0.60 

Nos. 3 and 4, for youths and adults " • • ^ 

Rings — two sizes . 

No. 1 , for children " .''5 

No. 2, for youths and adults " .'''5 

Wands — in required lengths, nicely turned each, .30 

same, with metallic balls " .^S 

Indian Clubs — five sizes of short clubs : 

No. 1, weight about 2 pounds per pair, 1.25 

No. 2, " 3 " " 1.50 

No. 3, " 4 " " 1.75 

No. 4, " 5 " " 2.00 

No. 5, ". 6 " " 2.50 

Six sizes of long clubs : 

No. 1, 7 to 8 pounds " 3.00 

No. 2, 10 " " 4.00 

No. 3, 12 " " 4.50 

No. 4, 14 " " 5.00 

No. 5, 16 - " " 5.50 

No. 6, 20 " " 6.00 

Any size or style to order. Liberal discount on quantities. 

Eehoe's Book on use of Clubs, illustrated 2.50 

Croquet, etc., etc. 



Gymnastic Apparatus. 



APPARATUS is now regarded by educators almost as indispensable in 
pliysical training as agricultural implements are in successful farming. 
The demand, bowovcr, is not so much for the costly, fixed apparatus of the 
gymnasium, as for a few light and simple implements, which are cheap and 
easily obtained ; which may be used with ecpial fiicility under cover, or in the 
open air — in a calisthonic hall, or in a bedroom ; which may be employed by 
persons of all ages, either individually or in classes ; and which insure 
generous emulation alike in the family, the school, and the g/mnasium. 

The four jiieces of apparatus which most completely fulfill these con- 
ditions, and consequently are most deservedly popular, are Wands, DumlJ- 
tells, Indian Clubs, and Rings. With these an almost unlimited number 
of varied, powerful, and graceful movements may be executed, bringing into 
play, under healtliful conditions, every muscle, joint, and member of the 
human body. 

How should this apparatus be constructed, with reference to form, size,' 
and material ? In answering this important question, let us bear in mind 
the fact that the oVject of gymnastic exercises is to secure beauty of form and 
grace of movement, as well as muscular strength ; and that we aim not so 
much to acquire the power to bear heavy burdens — the power important for 
porters, hod-carriers, and coal-heavers — as for the qualities required in the 
more usual vocations of life, such as flexibility, poise, grace, ease, rapidity 
of muscular action, and a general diffusion of muscular vigor. 

The primary object of gymnastic apparatus is not to serve as a test of 
strength, but to afford facilities for exercise, "We employ it to secure greater 
variety and precision of movement, more rapid development, and prolonged 
interest. 

The pieces here described are all made of wood, varnished with shellac, 
at least three coats, and well polished. 

Wands furnisli an extended course of beautiful and peculiarly effective 
exercises. For diversity in movements, as a promoter of digestion, and as a 
curative for dyspepsia, the wand, properly constructed, is not surpassed by 
any other piece of gymnastic apparatus. 

The wand should be made of well seasoned white ash or black walnut, 
j)erfectly straight and smooth, seven-eigJdlis of an inch thick for men and 
women, and three-fourths of an inch for boys and girls. "When hold vertical 
by the side, it shoxild extend from the floor to the lobe of the ear, as in 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 



55 




Fig. I. 



Fig. 2. 



Fig. 1. It should be exactly of tins length, as a large majority ol the most 
valuable movements, as shown in Fig. 5, can not be well executed with 
a shorter one. 




Fig. 3- 



Fig. 4. 



56 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 




Fig. s- 

The wand is sometimes loaded at the ends with metallic balls — usually cast 
iron, well japanned. It not only aftords an almost unlimited number atid 
variety of movements by individuals, but also a most interesting and extended 
course of combined exercises for students, arranged 
in couples, as shown in Fig. 5. 

Dumb-bells are regarded by many gymnastic 
instructors as incomparably superior to any other , 
piece of apparatus, as a means of physical culture. 
Properly constructed, and in the hands of an adept, 
dumb-bells go beyond their usual province, and 
answer the purposes of "Indian clubs, gymnastic 
rings, parallel bars, a wand, a foil, — in short, 
almost the entire apparatus of the gymnasium. 

The dumb-bell most approved at the present (j 

time, is turned from wood. Fig. 6 will serve as a 
model. As will be seen, the handle has shoulders. 
It is long, bulged and beaded at the center, and well 
adapted to wrist movements (see Fig. 7), as well 
as aflfording every facility for free and easy motions 
of the hand, wrist, and forearm. The balls are 
moderate in size, beaded, and specially con- 
structed with reference to the 7)aU grasp, which 
adds greatly to the number and variety of its uses. 

(See Fig. 9.) 

Fig. 6. 




PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 



57 




Indian CIuTds, in our judg- 
ment, stand first in excellence. 
No other piece of gymnastic 
apparatus affords so many facili- 
ties for a marked, rapid, and 
systematic development — for so 
happy a combination of dash, 
daring, and skill : no other , 

insures so absorbing and con- 
tinuous an interest. While clubs 
enforce to a wonderful extent 
the simultaneous activity of the mental and physical powers, they are in 
the beginning accessible to the meanest capacity. The mastery of their 
alternate, reciprocating, and double movements, their beautiful devices, 




Fig. 8. 




Fig. 9. 



58 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 




Fig. lo. 



■ik^. 



and almost as delicate and complicated as those of 
a Thalberg, or an Ole Bull, much depends on the construe- ^ ' 
tion of handle. The club is sometimes held with the 
thumb and a single finger, sometimes with the whole c ■ 
hand, and sometimes it is guided merely with the tips 
of the fingers. In this model, there are, for practical pur- ^7 
poses, really four handles: the entire handle from a tod, , . 
the space between a and c, between c and cZ, and above 
the shoulder at e. 

This model answers both for 
lonff clubs and for sJiort ones. 
The length of the club is deter- 
mined by the length of the arm. 
The long club, when held upon 
the arm extended horizontally, 
should reach to the point of 
the shoulder where the arm and 
shoidder join, as in Fig. 13. 

The short club in the same 
position should extend nearly 

two inches above the elbow. 

Eings afford opportunities for 

50 many graceful positions and 

effective movements in comlnna- 

tion for botli sexes, and persons • 

Fig. 12. of all ages and degrees of 



and their endlessly varied and 
delicate combinations, would 
afibrd employment for the leisure 
hours of a lifetime : demanding 
the union of those superior, innate 
qualities which insure superiority 
in billiards and chess. No other 
piece of apparatus requires more 
skill in its construction. The poise 
should be so adjusted that, when 
in motion, the central forces may 
harmonize, requiring only the 
guiding will of the gymnast. 

The model here given (Fig. 11) 
is believed to be superior to all 
others. As the manipulations in 
this exercise should be as perfect, 




Fig. II. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 



59 




Fig. 13 



strength, that 
they ai"e justly 
classed with 
the most de- 
sirable articles 
of gymnastic apparatus. The best ring 
is turned from three sections of wood 
glued together, the grain running in 
contrary directions. This makes them 
very strong. Light and dark colored 
wood in alternate sections, highly 
polished, make very handsome rings. 
Our apparatus, devised by Prof. J. 
Madison Watson, has proved very 
satisfactory to our customers, and is 
having very large demand for schools 
and social clubs. Even more than 
dancing, light gymnastics — social 
gymnastics would be a better name — 
may be called the poetry of motion. 




Fig. 14. 



Possessing none of the objectionable features of dancing, and liable to none 




Fig. IS. 

of its abuses, these exercises combine all that is desirable in that popular 
amusement — music, rythmic motion, and the exhilaration of muscular 
activity — with an infinitely greater variety of movements. They are at once 
enjoyable and healthful. The foregoing illustrations are from Prof. "Watson's 
well-known "Hand-took of Gymnastics." — [See Price List on 53fZ. ^ja^^e. 



60 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 



Croqiiet— Field and Parlor. 




FIELD CROQUET. 

1. — Substantially good set for the school grounds — made of maple, in a neat 
and durable manner, plain finish. Eight balls and mallets, regular size, 
in a strong wood box, with book of directions price, $4,50 

2. — Manufactured of rock maple, in a neat and durable manner, plain finish. 

Full size and number of parts, in a neat box 5.00 

3. — Manufactured of rock maple, in a neat and durable manner, finished in 

oil. Bradley's patent sockets for bridges. Chestnut box §.00 

4, — Rock maple mallet-heads, banded; rock maple patent indexical balls; 
plated bridges, with Bradley's patent sockets; record dials, polished; 
elegant chestnut box, oil finish 12.00 

5. — Boxwood mallet-heads, banded ; improved linen plaited mallet-handles ; box- 
wood patent indexical balls ; plated bridges, with patent sockets ; record 
dials. Genuine French polish. Elegant chestnut box, oil finish 20.00 

6. — ^Boxwood mallet-heads, banded ; improved linen plaited mallet-handles ; 
patent indexical rubber-covered balls ; plated bridges, with patent sockets ; 
record dials. Elegant chestnut box, oil finish 25.00 

CARPET CROQUET, for in-door use. 

1. — ^Youth's; 4 mallets and 4 balls, turnposts and starting pins, 10 arches, 

clips, slate, and rules, in pine box 4.00 

2. — Same ; in walnut box 6.00 

3. — Maple; 8 mallets, 8 balls, starting and return posts, 10 arches, clips, rules, 

and slate, in walnut box 10.00 

4. — Boxwood ; best finish, and complete, with 8 mallets, 8 balls, starting and 

return posts, 10 arches, clips, rules, and slate, in walnut box 14.00 

This list of apparatus for Physical Education is necessarily very much 
abbreviated. We intend to supply all kinds of suitable apparatus for the 
amusement and exercise of youths and adults— believing that the proper 
development of the physical powers is no less important than the cultivation 
of the intellect. 

Hence "books of sports," and implements for Archery, Base Ball, Cricket, 
Croquet, Quoits, and all other aids for out-door and in-door games and sports 
properly belong to this line of business. 

Another catalogue, now in preparation, will also give illustrations of 
instructive toys for boys and girls. 



SCHOOL MATERIAL,— Pakt IV. 



GLOBES, etc, 



o>Ko 



OOZSTTEIOSTTS 



Atlases, Charts, etc., .... 
Bible Maps, . . . . = 

Celestial Indicator, . . . - 

Chart and Map Support, . . » . 

Concentric Globes, 

Franklin & Joslin Globes — Terrestrial and Celestial, 
Franklin Thirty Inch Globe, 

Geographical Charts, . . - - 

Geoselenean, . . . . » 

Historical Maps, . - . - . 

Maps — Outline, Physical, Political, et al. 
Orrery, or Planetarium, .... 

Our New School Globe, .... 
Perce's Magnetic Globes, . . . - 

Planispheres, . . - - . 

Schedler's School, Scientific, and Library Globes, 
Season Machines, .... 

Slate Globes, ..... 

Tellurians — Long's Patent, 



PAGE 

75 

• 76 
71 

• 75 
72 
65 
66 
75 
73 

■ 76 
75 

■ 71 
62 

■ 67 
68 

• 63 
73 

- 67 
70 




62 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



Globes 



"A Good Globe is as essential in everj- school-room as an English Dictionarj-, or a 
Blackboard." 

OUE NEW SCHOOL GLOBE. 



Probably the principal reason why so few of our schools are supplied with a globe is 

that there has been no good globe to be ob- 
tained at a moderate price. 

Our ne-w five inch Terrestrial Globe 
will precisely supply this want. The map is 
new — clearly ajid finely engraved — ^prepared 
expressly for taking the place of the large and 
expensive globes. The " Grand Divisions" 
are boldly colored. The water is white, dis- 
tinctly showing the principal Islands, Penin- 
sulas, Capes, Gulfs, Bays, etc., etc. 

It is mounted in a light and durable manner, 
strong brass mountings, inclined axis, on a 
neat black-walmit stand. 

Securely packed in box with sliding cover. 
Price $2.25 

A Hemisphere Globe (made by cutting 
a solid five inch globe through the Poles), 
showing also the two Hemispheres on a flat 
surface, will be found a great convenience to 
the teacher. The two parts are united by a 
brass hinge. Price $2.00 





Schedler's American Globes — 12 Inches — Nos. 1, 3. 2. 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



63 



Globes. 



' A Good Globe is as essential in every school-room as an English Dictionary, or a 

Blackboard." 

Schedler's Globes took the 
First-Class Prize Medal at the 
Paris Exhibition in 1867, and at 
the American Institute Fair in 
New York, 1869. 

They have been introduced in 
the Public Schools of New York, 
and many other cities, and are 
highly recommended by Dr. J. 
E. Hilgard, in charge of the 
Coast Survey at Washington ; 
Prof. C. H. r. Peters, of the 
Litchfield Observatory of Hamil- 
ton College, New York ; Prof S. 
M. Capron, of the High School, 
Hartford, Conn. ; Prof. R. Von 
Schlagintweit, the celebrated 
traveller, and many others. 

These globes are superior in 
accuracy, durability, and in 
correctness and fullness of in- 
formation. The latest geo- 
graphical discoveries, territorial 
changes, etc., are laid down on 
the maps. 

The mode of manufacturing 
the ball is Mr. Schedler's inven- 
tion, secured by patent. It com- 
bines a perfect spherical form, 
with great strength and dura- 
bility. 

Schedler's School Globe, 20 inch. (4.) 

1. Schedler's 12 inch Terrestrial, plain iron stand $15.00 

2. Schedler's 12 inch Terrestrial, bronzed stand, full meridian, inclined 

axis . '.".'' 

3. Schedler's 12 inch Terrestrial, low bronzed frame, with horizon, meridian, 

hour circle, and quadrant 

4. Schedler's 20 inch School, bronzed pedestal frame, fall meridian, inclined 




5. Schedler's 20 inch School (extra), bronzed pedestal frame, 42 inches high, 
horizon, meridian divided in half degrees, hour circle and quadrant. . . . 



1§.00 
25.00 
50.00 
65.00 



64 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



Globes. 

«A Good Globe is as essential in every school-room as an English Dictionary, or a 

Blackboard." 
'' ^^^^-^^^ Schedler's Scientific 

/:T^-f A^^^S^J^^^ Globes, as well as Lis Libra- 

_^^^ ' ^'"^ . V^VVK ^ Globes, distinctly show 

//;i'irf^^==tr/^ - - ^"' '"t?^ '^^ ^^"^^*^ °^ ^^^ *^^^^ stream, 

liiflJ^A\^''^^^^>^ ' - '^' 11 ^"'^ °^'^^'-' Oceanic Currents, 

TTt-.-^i-^ jS^ U ^^^^ ,1 ^ ^ Deep-sea Soundings, the lines 

.JC: /!^'^^. _r^^^ ^^ '^qa^l Magnetic Variation, 

tf T V''^~~^^"'^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ Oceanic Conamunication, 

and of Submarine Telegraphs. 
V*:3r^ ~ ' M^Kj" W-W These globes have met with the 
i ' i^f^'^"^ •^r ^af T^ost flattering reception, and 
^^i-i#^^ ^^' ft^^ ^^^ ^^^^ worthy the examina- 
"^ SStayS§^ v<^^^ *^°^ ^^ ^^^ interested in the sub- 
lb^ ..^^ ject. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

I have examined your twenty 
^S iich Terrestrial Globe, and 

have no hesitation in commend- 
ing it to the attention of all 
who desire a superior article of 
the kind, either for school or 
for a library. 

Henry Barnard, 
Late Commis'r of Education, 
"Washington, D. C. 

^^^ ^ As an object of art, Schcd- 

'^^'^'^ ler's 20 inch Terrestrial Globe 

_. ^, ._^ „ ^ - is really beautiful, and for the 

3^=- I ^SS^^^'^^*""^ ~ purpose of scientmc study it 

could hardly be improved. 
S. M. Capron, 
Principal High School, 
Hartford, Conn. 
Schedler's Library Globe, 20 inch, (8.) 

6. Schedler's 20 inch Scientific, bronzed pedestal frame, with full meridian 

and inclined axis $60.00 

7. Schedler's 20 inch Scientific, bronzed pedestal frame, 42 inches high, 

with horizon, meridian divided in half degrees, hour circle, and quad- 
rant 75.00 

8. Schedler's 20 inch Library, fine bronzed pedestal frame, 42 inches high, 

with horizon, brass meridian divided in half degrees, hour circle, quad- 
rant, and magnetic needle. It is a useful and beautiful ornament for the 
library or parlor 175.00 

Celestial Globes of same styles and same sizes, at same prices, are in 
preparation. 

Packing boxes for shipping these globes are supplied for the 20 inch globes, 
each 4.50 

For the 12 inch, each , 2.50 




SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



65 



Globes. 



The Franklin & Josliu Globes have been long known, and highly esteemed. The 

6, 10, 12, and 30 inch globes have been recently re-cngraved, and the following important 
additions and corrections made. 

Pacific Railroad; Erench Submarine Cable; Alaska, Sitka, and all territories of which 
the correct bounderies can be obtained ; the present Russian, Prussian, and Austrian 
bcunderies; important places, rivers, lakes, mountains, especially in Africa and New 
South Wales, and the correct names of countries that have been changed recently. 





The 10 inch Terrestrial ani Celestial Globes will be found of good service in 
schools and families, to illus- 
trate Geography and Astron- 
omy. The Terrestrial gives 
the boundaries in the United 
States and Territories, from 
the latest and best authorities, 
and exhibits the boundaries of 
other countries as laid down 
by the most eminent Geog- 
raphers, 
The 12 inch Terrestrial and Celestial 

Globes are the most popular for the larger Schools 

and Academies. They are not surpassed in accu 

racy and beauty of finish by any other globe of its diameter. 
We beheve that the use of globes in teaching has been undervalued. For example, 

many pupils get (he idea from the map that Australia and New Zealand are at the two 

extremes of the earth, instead of learning that they are near neighbors, no farther apart 

than Ne\^ York and Cuba. It is essential that every pupil should receive lessons from the 

globe, as well as the map. 





66 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 

Globes. 

The Franklin 16 inch Globes (Terrestrial and Celestial), are especially valuable 
globes. They are very finely engraved, and are, unquestionably, more useful for daily 
reference than a map, showing, at a glance, the relative positions of different countries, 
their boundaries, and theif latitude and longitude. 




The Franklin 30 inch Globe (Terrestrial only) is very plainly engraved, and hand- 
somely mounted on a solid Mahogany frame. It is the largest ever made in this country, 
and presents quite an imposing appearance ; it is appropriate for public rooms, literary 
institutions, hotels, saloons of steamers, as well aa for the large schools and colleges. 

"FEANKLIN" GLOBE: SIZES AND PKIOES. 

6 inch wood frame (no quadrant) per pair $ 1 8 tOO 

9i inch wood, eemi-frame (no quadrant) _ " 24.00 

10 inch wood frame (with quadrant) i " 36«00 

10 inch bronze frame " , " 40.00 

12 inch wood, eeml-ftame (no quadrant) " 34oOO 

12 inch wood frame (with quadrant " 44>00 

12 inch low bronze frame " " 50.00 

12 inch bronze pedestal frame " (case and packing, cacA globe extra, $17ZS) " 75.00 

16 inch wood frame " " " " " 1.60 " 80.00 

16 inch bronze pedestal frame " " " '• " 2.00 " 125.00 
30 inch Terrestrial, quadrant and compass, on Mahogany frame, with casters, 

(case and packing, $8 extra) " 275.00 

Terrestrial and Celestial, separate, at half-price " per pair," and quadrant charged extra 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



67 



Globes. 

Perce's Magnetic Globes are peculiar in illustrating gravitation. They are metal- 
lic, and by the use of magnetized objects, repre- 
senting Men of different races, Animals of different 
climes. Light-houses, Steamers, Ships, the actual 
Uving, moving veorld, with much of its most 
interesting and instructive phenomena, is presented 
V\/ /X.^!jC;^^W i i^ miniature to the mind of the pupil. 

Styles and Prices. 

Five inches in diameter, plain stand $6.00 

Five inches in diameter, semi-meridian S.OO 

Seven inches in diameter, plain stand 12.00 

Seven inches in diameter, semi-meridian 1 5 .OO 

Seven inches in diameter, full Meridian 20. OO 

Twelve inches in diameter, plain stand 20.00 

Twelve inches in diameter, semi-meridian 25.00 

Twelve inches in diameter, full meridian 3 5.00 

One dozen magnetic objects, representing Men 
of different races, Ships, Steamers, Lio-ht-houses, 
and various Animals, and Mrs. Smith's Globe 
Manual, accompany each globe without additional 
cost 

They are securely packed for shipment. 





Slated Globes are now finding a place, 
hitherto unoccupied, in every grade of school, from 
Primary to University. Their varied uses as 
"Spherical Blackboards," make them as much a 
necessity to intelligent teaching as common flat 
blackboards. 

If for no other purpose than for laying a sure 
foundation for a right understanding of Geography^ 
they are entitled to first rank in school apparatus. With them the teacher of Geography 
may begin objective instruction at the outset, showing the tilings themselves, not inaccur- 
ate pictures which the well-trained mind may imagine to represent them. Pupils thus 
learn not merely names of geographical lines, but what they are, what they are for, and how 
to draw them; and more, how to draw by them. Map-drawing becomes intelligent 
work, not mere mechanical transferring of unmeaning marks from one paper to another. 

Multitudes of facts and phenomena can be illustrated and explained so simply and 
clearly that any child can understand them. The most obscure theorems and problems 
of Spherical Geometry, Trigonometry, and Navigation become, when studied in connection 
with the Sphere, perfectly intelligible. 

As now made, these Globes, or Spherical Blackboards, are an improvement of the original mven- 
tion of Professor Shepard. Size? and prices : 
No. 1.— On handle, very convenient, size 4 inches in diameter $1.50 



2.— Brass meridian, 
3.- 



wood frame. 



6 
9 

4.— " " bronzed frame, 12 

5.— " " " 15 

6.— High bronzed frame, with casters, 18 



5.00 

9o00 

15,00 

20.00 

30.00 



68 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 

The Pocket Planisphere. 

The simplest of all apparatus for " Easy Star Studies," is illustrated, full size, in the 

accompanying cuts. 




The Pocket Planisphere is the Cheapest and most convenient means ever 
devised for Identifying the Fixed Stars. 

It consists of (a.) A light, strong card, about four inches square, carrying an accurate 
circumpolar Star-map, surrounded by a circle of the months subdivided for the days ; and 
( b.) A smaller circular card, carrying the hours of the day, and an open space, representing 
the horizon. These two cards are attached at the centre, so as to turn one on the other. 

This form — a simplification of Baudin's improvement of the original Planisphere 
invented by the celebrated astronomer Bode, in 1786 — answers the same purpose as the 
large Planispheres, costing twelve times as much. In addition to cheapness, this Plani- 
sphere has the further advantage of being so small and light as to be easily carried in the 
pocket. 

The Pocket Planisphere is used as follows : To bring to view the principal Stars visi- 
t)le at any given night and hour, turn the upper card so as to bring the hour of observation 
to correspond with the given time of year on the lower card. The open space will then 
exhilai; the stars of the first and second magnitudes above the horizon at the specified time. 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



The Pocket Planisphere. 



69 



If the card be held face downward above the head of the observer, with the N. point toward 
the north, it will exnibit the stars in tneir positions relative to the real horizon. 

The stars of the first magnitude are numbered on the Star-map, in the order of their 
brilliancy, from 1 to 15. The key to the identification of the stass is given on the back of 
the Planisphere. 

Price Prepaid, by mail, 30 cents. 




Maltby's Improved Correct Planisphere — diameter about 15 inches, mounted 

in a superior style — ^Imported — price, $5.00. 

[The publication of the Pocket Planisphere induced a certain charlatan to demand from 
its publishers the payment of money for — say, an mfringement of his fancied rights. His 
demands not being satisfied, he, aiaed by a peculiar affidavit from one Barnes, not un- 
known to fame (?), began suit for an injunction in deftnce of his "peculiar interests'' in 
this little instrument, nearly a century old. Ot course he got no " injunction" ; but the 
court got some novel lessons in astronomy.] 



70 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



Long's Patent Tellurian. 




This apparatus took the first medal and diploma, at the great fair of the American Insti- 
tute, in 1869, and has recently been adopted by the Board of Education, of New York. 

Explanation. — S, rcjircscnts the Sun; E, the Earth; M, the Moon; I, I, the Indicator, 
supported on the pivot arm ; C, its connecting rod ; F, its joint, which may be unscrewed ; 
P, the Earth's pointer; N, the Sun's pointer. 

It is calculated for every-day use in all schools where Greography is tauglit, and the rela- 
tions of the Earth to the Sun and Moon need to be illustrated. 

It will commend itself to the favorable judgment of teachers, because of the following 
considerations : 

1. Size. — The Earth is represented by a five-inch globe, which makes all the illustra- 
tions on so large a scale, that they can be easily seen by a class. The Earth may also be 
used separately as a globe. 

2. AccnRACY. — It is operated by gearing, and moves regularly, and with certainty. 
The Indicator shows, not only the limit of day and night, but also the IMeridian, the 
Plane of the Ecliptic, and the part of the Earth to which the Sun is vertical on any day, 
all with scientific precision. 

3. DnRABiLiTT. — It has no appearance of a toy, or a fragile instrument. Every part 
IS of good size and strongly made. It is, therefore, always ready for use at a moment's 
notice, and pupils may safely handle it to any reasonable extent. 

A circular of the illustrations shown by it will be sent on application, with stamp 

Price, best style brass mounting, boxed $30.00 

■^ key, giving full description, is inchided without charge. 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 71 

Bryant's Celestial Indicator. 




This is a new apparatus for facilitating the study of astronomy. It is intended to 
illustrate clearly to children and to adults the various phenomena of the heavenly bodies : 
the motion of the earth around the sun, and the changes of the seasons ; the earth's axial 
motion ; the precession of the equinoxes ; nutation ; tides ; eclipses, both solar and lunar ; 
the change of the pole star ; changes in the declination and right ascension of stars ; the 
difference between the siderial and tropical years ; the retrogradation of the signs of the 
zodiac ; the revolution of the moon's nodes, etc., etc. 

Accompanying the apparatus is a short Treatise on Astronomy, descriptive of the same, 
and illustrating how to use the instrument. An hour's time will enable the teacher to 
become familiar with the subject and with the instrument, and impart more information 
by illustration, with the INDICATOR, than is usually gained by pupils during theii 
entire course. 

The apparatus is niade of brass ; is simple and durable in construction ; not liable to 
get out of order. It occupies about a cubic foot, and is carefully boxed for shipment to 
any part of the country. 

PRICE, I^acqnered, - - - $30.00 

" Nickel Platcrd, - - ^ 40.00 



Among the many favorable opinions received, are the following : 
"The Celestial Indicator, invented and constructed by Mr. Henry Bryant, if a simple appar- 
atnH which illustrates with great cleameps many important aBtronomical pheiiomeua. I am of 
opinion that it well deserves a place in our schools, where the elements of astronomy are taught 
and 1 know of no other similar apparatus, now in use, that contains such an amount of accurate 
illustration, at so smaH a price. 

"JOHN BROCKLESBY, 

" Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, 
" in Trinity College, Hartford, Conn." 



" I desire to recommend it, unhesitatingly, to the attention of all interested in astronomy, par- 
ticularly teachers. Mr. Bryant's apparatus being quite unique, and different from all others, 
deserves a place in every good collection of ecientiflc apparatus, on ita own peculiar merits. 

"S. M, CAPRON, 
"Principal of H, P. N. b., Hartford, Conn." 



72 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 

Williamson's Concentric Celestial and Terrestrial 

Globes. 




Tlicse Globes present to the mind of the Icflrner a faithful representation of the relations 
of the earth to the heavens, while all the geographical and astronomical problems arc 
solved with great simplicity and perspicuity. 

The Celestial Globe consists of two hollow hemispheres of glass, held in position by a 
brazen equinoctial, which is graduated into degrees and hours. Within this hollow globe 
is an ordinary Terrestrial Globe, whose diameter is about one-half that of the Celestial 
Globe, both globes turning on a common axlo and having a common centre, but so 
arranged that cither may be revolved at pleasure, independent of the otlicr, by means of 
milled heads at the Northern and Southern extremities of the axle. 

On a i)latform attached to the tripod is a mariner's compass, by the aid of which the 
globe may be placed in its proper position. 

On the inner surface of the Celestial Globe the stars of the first, second, third, and fourth 
magnitudes^ are gilded; the ecliptic, colures, meridians, and parallels laid down ; and the 
outlines of the constellation figures, with their names, are artistically painted, not, how- 
ever, so as to obscure the Terrestrial Globe within. 

Price, with a " Manual of Problems on the Globes," $100.00 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 

Moore's Geoselenean. 



73 




Moore's Geoselenean is a new instrument intended to illustrate the pnnciiial 
motions and phenomena of the Solar System much more perfectfy, its in- 
ventor claims, than with the Tlanetarium or Tellurian. It is desif,med by 
John G. M(X)Tv,, M. S., Teacher and Lecturer in Friends Central lh<^h 
School. A printed description of 18 pages accompanies each instrument. 
Price ; • i'*'*'''^ 

The Tellurian, or Season Machine, shows the Sun, Earth, and Moon, with 
the })hcnomena of the Seasons. Improved geared, brass, with compass and 
burnished Sun. Trice ^ ^£».WW 

The School Orrery, or Planetarium, represents the Planets in their regu- 

lar order. Best, brass. Price * ^* AO 

Second quality material and finish t OAft 

Common, and wood in place of brass 12.WI 



74 



SrilOOl, MA'PKUIAL 



The Tcllurion Globe 




This instnnuoiu {{\w iuvoulion ofJ. L. Nai!*li, 15.A.) solves astrouomioal jmiMoms with 
tiU'siiiiilo ilhisivations, uivinj; (with oxnot nniouuts), n ooiuploto analysis ot'tho Kiiuatiou of 
'riiuo. and othorwiso surpasses the onlinavv clobe both in faoilitv of use ami f;vncnU scope. 

EXTRACTS FROM TESTIMONIALS.— " InvaluaWe to leetiiivrs niul f<\-u-luMs." Sm UOP- 
KUMl'K MlUc'lUSON. nr,.<. 0/ Hri(i.<ft (.Vtvmi/'/lJiM/ ^tw " Miu'h uioro eonii>leto than iiny former 
uifiins in use. The luiiialioti of Time Is 'made perfeetlv ii\telUi;lble." -I»i:v. Pit, WtUU.l.KY, 
i>in\-!i>r or' hMiiaition, to Ilrilifh Aiiiniruliij. " Shows wlli\ eleaniess the solutions of i^eo.ciatihieal 
ai\il asfroiioinioal questioiia."— (.'om. T. K. f^ANPS, ^l//l^ T. N. Adcwi Olk-Yrrnlon/.—Oifirlai AV/ivV. 
" lias >:reat merits ; tlio two causes in tlio Kquation of Time are very clearly chown."— Lt. (."omim!. 
.1. A. IIOWKI.L, /'. N. Xan/. ll,\til 0/ /V/>^ 0/ Anttvnoinij and yavl<7athvi, l'. S. XanU AtMiUiiu/, 
Ariiuinit^'i.t. " AthniraMe u\ecl»anieal combination— *imj>lo but etVeetivo instrument."- I'nov. 
SAMl KL MOlxSK. "Very be.auiirtil and inir<nilons."— \\ . O. TKOK. fiv/. AKtiviwmt/, l\\'iii)if>Hi 
(\\Vt(/f . *• A very in.::ei\ious invention, ami elicited the admiral ion of nil."— ,lMt/ii«nm, May '.), 18(>S. 

rrico liiSO.00 



{Special Geographical List.) 75 

Atlases, Charts, Globes, Maps, etc. 



C 



Adjustable Chart and Map Support, Price «I0. 

The cut pretty fully tihowB the coriKtruction «»1 
the Bupport. The Htaudard Ih (jrooved to huh- 
taio a movable "T." the cronH-picce of wlilcb 
bears two Blidlng arms, provided with hookc, 
for BUBtalning the map or chart. The Suppobt 
is raised or lowered by means of a knob, the po- 
sition of which in indicated by the dotted line 
from A. This knob aluo governs a 8prirj({ which 
holds the "T" in place. The cut shows the top 
raised one notch and the arms slij^htly extended 
tf> receive the lar;je map shown by the dotted 
outlines. It will as nicely support the largest 
map as the smallest chart, and is so stiff and firm 
that some are using it for a b!a/;kboard support. 

The merit of this 8ui'I'0BT cannot be consid- 
ered relatively, for there is nothing else like It. 
It i« the sole occupant of the field ; and It an- 
Bwers Its puqjose perfectly. Setting aside Its 
convenleiice. It must commend Itself to every 
teacher on the swjre of economy. It will save 
Its cost in a single year by preventing the ntjces- 
slty of subjecting maps to the soiling Incident to 
their exposure on the walls. 

.T£. A S—COLTON'S— General, Geographical, BUtistical, and Hifitorical. 2fXJ Maps and Plans. 

Imperial Folio. Cloth, monj<xo backs $20 00 

MITCHELL'S— New General. 98 Maps and Tlans, with valuable statistical tables. Folio, 

clotli, morocco ba<;k8 11 00 

OP THE UNION, with all the States and Territories. States colored In counties— Rail- 
roads and principal towns located — Populations, etc 3 80 

HARTS :— WARREN'S PHYSICAL AND OUTLINE. 14 Plate8«n seven boards. The 

Set in portfolio, with liand-book 18 00 

POLITICAL AND OUTLINE. For Common Schools. 8 In series, on muslin 10 00 




G 



LOBES I— "FRANKLIN." Terrestrial or Celestial, separate, at half price " per pair," and 
quadrant ext-ra. 

6 In. Terrestrial, plain stand, new map each 2 25 

6 in. wood, semi-frame (no qua<Jrant) per pair 10 WJ 

6 in. wood (full) frame do do 18 (X) 

9i in. wood, semi-frame, no quadrant do 

10 in. wood frame wlUi quadrant do 



lOin. bronze, frame do — ■^ — do 

12 in. wood frame do do 

12 in. low bronze frame do do 

12 in. bronze pedcEtal frame do (case and packing, each globe extra, $1.75 . . do 

10 in. wood frame do do do do 1.50 do 

10 in. bronze pedefttal frame do do do do 2.00 do 

aij in. Terrestrial, quadrant and compass, on mahogany frame, with casters (case and 

packing $8 extra) . oach 275 00 



24 00 
30 00 
40 00 
44 00 

5fj m 

75 fXJ 
8<) 00 
126 00 



G 



liOBKS :— PERCE'S MAGNETIC, Terrestrial, each- 
Sin, plain stand $0 (X) I 12 in. plain stand ....20 00 

6 in. semi-meridian 8 (X) I 12 in. semi-meridian — 2.5 00 

7 in. plain stand 12 (Xi 12 in. full meridian ....3500 

7 IiL semi-meridian 15 (XJ | 12 in. ctjmplete, high stand, hour circle, etc. 76 00 

12 Magnetic Objects, representing the Races, Animals, Ships, Light-houses, ale., free with each Globa 



76 Atlases, Charts, Globes, Maps, ite. — Continued. 



S 



M. 



liATE GL.OBES. Invaluable in "Objsct Tsachimo," Matbkkatioai. GEOOiiArnT, &c. 

No. 1.— On haiuilo, very couvoniont, size 4 in. diaiuetor $1 BO 

S.— Brass moridiau, wooil framo, tj in. do 5 00 

8.— do. do. 9 in. do 9 00 

4.^ do. bronzed frame, l"i in. do 16 00 

5.— do. do. 15 in. do 90 00 

6.— nigh bronzed IVame, with castors, IS in. do 80 00 



I'IaP of AMKKICA. Our wliole Country, large scale, 72 m. X so $10 00 

United Statks or Amkuica, from Ocean to Oceaii, 31 in. x 87 8 00 

1 HYSIOAl. AND POIilTICAL. QUYOTS NEW WALL-MAPS. 

No. 1 .-PUIMAKY SKHIES— ou Muslin, in Portfolio. Sold in sets $18 00 



Ihiited Slates in sections size -18 in. xGO 

Hemispheres do. Stiin. x4S 

North America do. *t in. x St) 

South America do. 84 in. x 3t> 

Central Europe do. 84 in. x Sti 



Europe 84 in. x 86 

Asia 34 in. X 36 

Afri«B 34 In. X 86 

Oceanica 34 in. x 36 

World ^Mercator'8 Proj.) 34 in. x 86 



No. a^THE COMMON SCROOL SEHIES. Packed in a. ueat box. Per set $25 00 



Length c/RoUer. Pffth cf Map. 

The United States 04 iuches. 4S inches. 

Tlie Heniispliere 63 " SS " 

North Anierion 28 " S3 " 

South America 28 " S'J " 

Africa. 28 " S2 " 



Length cf RolUr. Depth of Map. 

Asia — S3 inohos. 25 inches. 

Tlio World (Mer. Proj.) 8« " 26 " 

Oentvnl Kurope. 86 " 25 " 

Europe S6 " 25 '• 

Austiiilia and Oceanica— 30 " 26 " 



No. 3.— fNTERMEDIATE SERIES, on Cloth and Rollers, sold singly or in sets. 



United States size 4S in. x (K) $4 IX) 

Hemispheres OtHu. x TO 7 50 

North America 48 in. x tk) 4 50 

South America 4Siu. xGO 8 50 



Europe size 48 in. x(W $4 50 

Asia 4Slu. x()0 5 00 

AtVica 4S in. X 60 4 50 

Oceanica 4Siu. xOO 5 00 



No. 4.— LARGE SERIES, on Cloth and Rollers, sold singly or in sets. 
The World, Mercator's Projection— size 7"3 iu. x l->0 



United States size T'Jin.xOO $8 IX) 

North America 60 in. x 73 6 50 

South America 60 in. x 72 6 50 

Central Europe 72 in. x % S 50 

Key to Guyot's Maps 



|;^2 QQ 

Euixipe size 73 in. x 96 $8 00 

Asia 72 in. X 96 10 00 

Africa 63 in. x 72 6 50 

Oceanica 4Siu.x60 5 tX) 

1 00 



No. 5,— CLASSICAL, on Cloth and Rollers. Roman Empike, 73 iu. x 84 $15 00 

. .. . , .... ,.., .,. ^^^ 

S4 15 00 







H 



Anciknt Gukeck iinchulinir City of Attiens) 72 in. x 84 'l6 00 

Italia, including Map of City ol Ancient Rome, 72 ' 



riXlNK OTAPS. 

CoKNELx's, 13 maps on muslin, in portfolio, and Key 15 00 

Mitchhi.l's New Ovitline. 7 maps on miislin, in portfolio, and Key. 10 00 

Pki.ton's, 72 in. x 85, on dot li and rollers. Complete set 26 00 

do. do. on heavy paper. do 15 00 

Key to Pelton's Outline Maps 75 

ISTOniOAl.. Kicpert's largo Mural Maps of Ancient History. 

Roman Emtiuk, 67 in. x H)3 $12 00 

Ancient Italy, 72 in. v< i^' 11 00 

Ancient Gueeci, 70 in. x 84 i) 50 

Would, at time of Persian and Macedonian Empire, 48 in. x 96 8 00 

TuK Environs op Rome, SS iu. x 45 tall on Clotn and Rollers) 4 00 



IJibLE: map. Map oftho Lands mentioned in the Bible. 74in. xB3 $T 60 

Area embraced includes both New Testament and Old Testamont countries, taking in Rome on the 
West. Egypt on the South, and the mouth of the Euplirates on the East. Lettering is bold and easily 
read from every part of a cUiss-room. It gives ancient and modern names of towns, rivers, mountains, 
etc. Routes of St. Paul in liis missionary tours are plainly indicated by distinct colored Hues. All 
missiouiiry stations are shown by spots of color, tlius adding a very Interesting feature. 



M. 



ISCEIili.lNKOrS. 

Apgar's Geograplucal Drawing Book 94 

Ai»i:ar's Map Drawing Ctmis. Complete set, in envelope IS 

do. Superior ixualitv 26 

Guj'Ot's Eureka Slated Map Drawing Cards. Complete set, in portfolio 1 50 

Paper Map DrawiUiT Cards. do. do 76 

Ueographlcal Deflnitious. Illustrated, on chart, 34 in. x 44 4 00 

Geographical Cards (six sheets on boards), 21 iiL x 31 6 00 

Geographicjil Dictionary: Lippincott's Pronouncing Gazetteer of the World 10 00 

Historical Cliart tLy man'sl. and Key ." 2 60 

Stream of Time, or Chart of Universal History, 33 in. x 43 6 00 

OXT-BOOKS ON GEOGRAPHY, of all kinds. snppUod at thb Pcblishers' wholb 
SALE uatss. Sent by Mail, postage prepaid, at retail prices. 



SCHOOL MATERIAL —Part V. 
BLACKBOARDS, OBJECT-TEACHING AIDS, etc. 

OOlSTTEiaSTTS. 

PAGE 

Abacus, or Numeral Frame, ....-- - 84 

Alphabet Blocks, Charts, etc., . - - . - - - 8.3 

Aids to Neatness, ....---■• 90 

Aids to School Discipline, -- .----92 

Arithmetical Solids, ... - - - - 85 

Barometers, ..------- 89 

Blackboard Easels, Supports, etc., ------ 80 

Blackboard Kubbers, ...----- 81 

Call Bells, - . - 86 

Clocks for Schools, - - . - . - - - - 88 

Color Cubes, ..-..----• 84 

Compasses and -Crayons for Blackboards, - - - - - 82 

Cone, Dissected, ..------- 84 

Crayon Holders, Dividers, and Pencil Holders, - - - - - 82 

Cube Root Blocks, - 84 

Dissected Mathematical Blocks, - - - - " " - 84 

Door Mats, .-------- 90 

Dusters, . - - - ----- 91 

Eureka Liquid Slating, 



78 



Eureka Wall Slates, - - ' '[^_ 

Forms and Solids.— -New— For Object Teaching, - - - • 

Geometrical Forms, --•---"" 
Globe Clock— Timby's, . - - - • - . - 

Gonigraph, -----•-"" 

Hand Bells, • - - " 

Honor Rolls, • --_--"" 

Kindergarten Blocks, .----""" 
Mathematical Blocks, .--•--- 

Medals, ._--•-•""' 

Numeral Frames, _---""■" 
Object- Teaching Forms, ..---- 

Rain Gauge — Smithsonian ----""" 
Rogers' School Groups, .---*•-" 
Shades, Hat racks. Sweepers, etc., ----'' 
Shoe Scrapers. ' .-•--'"* 

Spelling and Sentence Sticks, • - 

Tape Measures, Patent Spring ----""" 
Thermometers, - - ■--■"" 



85 
85 
88 
85 
87 
93 
84 
84 
92 
84 
85 
89 
94 
91 
90 
63 
87 
89 



EunEKA Liquid Slat^g 

(Munger's Invention. J. W. Schermerhobn & Co., Sole Manufacturers), 

MAKES A SURFACE WHICH RIVALS THE BEST STONE SLATES. 

It is perfectly Black ; never Crumbles ; always remains Hard and Smooth. 

It is successfully applied to board, paper, or wall, and is invaluable in renovating old 
Blackboards. Its Durability is proved by eighteen years' severe use in the best schools 
of New England and New York. The Surface seems to improve with use and age. Any 
teacher, observing "Directions," can apply it, making perfect slate surface, un- 
rivalled in color, smoothness, and durability. 

PRICE: Pints, $1.50; Quarts, $2.50; Gallons, $9.00. 

One quart will cover 100 square feet, one coat. Hence it makes cheap Blackboard. 
For old Boards, one coat i« enough ; new surface requires two. It is put up in tin cans, 
and safely sent by express. 

CAUTION. — Eureka Liquid Slating is the Original Liquid Slating — the first 
Liquid Blackboard ever sold. Its success has called out imitations ; but none produce 
the perfectly smooth, enduring, dead-black surface of the Eureka. It is 

THE ONLY slate SURFACE WHICH WILL NOT GLAZE. 

Prominent Educators almost everywhere can speak for Eureka Slating ; and we 

will ^varrant it. 

♦ 

Testimony for the EUREKA SLATING. 

The Eureka Liquid Slating will always give satisfaction when properly applied. 

JOHN D. PHILBRICK, Supt. Public Schools, Boston, Mass. 

We have used Eureka Slating on our blackboards since 1864 ; I do not hesitate to say that they 
are superior to the best stone slates. 

C. G. CLARK, Master Bigelow Grammar School, S. Boston, Mass. 

I have used it fifteen years, and it seems to improve. From my own experience 1 think it will 
last FiPTT TEARS. E. ROBINS, Principal, New Haven, Conn. 

The Eureka is the best surface for Blackboards we have used in ten years' teaching. 

GEO. D. BROOMELL, Principal Haven School, Chicago. 
IRA S. BAKER, Principal Skinner School, Chicago. 

Your Eureka Slating is wonderftil. I applied it to old blackboards. They are like stone slate. 

O. R. WILLIS, Principal Alexander Institute, White Plains, N. Y. 
Office Superintendent Public Schools. Cleveland, Ohio, 1867. 
Eureka Liquid Slating covers over twelve thousand feet of our blackboards, at a cost of about 
$1000. We are weU paid. It is far superior to anything which I know. ANSON SMYTH. 

Eureka Slatino- is on blackboards in my school. They are hard, do not reflect the light, and are 
smoother than natural slate. A. J. RICKOFF, Principal, Cincinnati, Ohio. 

I have used it ten years. It is slate-color, smooth, and never becomes glossy 

O. S. COOK, Principal No. 2, Dayton, Ohio. 

For fifteen years I have used blackboards of every sort, those made of wood and well coated 
with various preparations. I have tried quarry slate. For six years I have used Eureka Slating, 

and find it superior to any other surface. „^„tt, t. • -r^ -r^ 4. /^u- tt • 

"I' J ALONZO J. HOWE, Pnn. Prep. Dept., Chicago University. 

Albion Commercial College, Michigan, May Z,-imi. 
We find Eureka Slating surface equal to the best stone slates. (Hon.) IRA M AYHEW, Prest. 

National Business College, Chicago, May ^5, 1866. 
We have used it in our four College buildings, on common walls and on old boards It exceeds 
our hopes in fineness and durability? H. G. EASTMAN, LL.D., Prcsl., D. K. ALLEN, Secy. 

Indianapolis Female Institute, Ind., March n, 1866. 
For four years we have used Eureka Slating with complete ^^""^^f/'o^rtranHrotunbrokln 
walls, and hard finish. I prefer it to real slate, because it is as good, wil'^^^'^^^^^-^g^'j^resident 
surfaoe to any extent. ^. ■ i 

St. Joseph, Missouri, Aug. 28, 1865. 
It is easily applied, and makes a beautiful and perfect ^l^^^^^^'-^^^^j^f ^Y, Supt. Public Schools. 

Minnesota State Normal School. Winona. March 13, 1866. 
Our blackboards are of Eureka Slating. It leaves nothing to be desired. It is eqnal to best 
Vermont and Lehigh slates, besides being cheaper. I commend it to the teachers of the Northwest. 

WM. F. PHELPS, Principal. 

Besides above, w^e can refer to tbonsands of the most intelligent 
teachers and school officers in the land. 



Eureka Wall Slates. 

Ready made Standard Sizes, PERFECT Slate SUEPACE, in neat ash frames : 



IVo. 1, S 

3, 

3, 
4, 

5? 
6, 

r, 

9, 



o a 



•5-d 



K o 
td>i 
X 



ze, a X 3 ft., finislied on botb. sides (giving la Sqr. ft. of Surface) $3 50 



a|x3|« 

3 X4 " 

3 X4|" 

3iX5 « 

4' X 5 " 

4 X6 « 
3X6 " 



18 

ar 

33 
35 
40 

48 



5 2!: 

r 00 
r 75 

9 50 
10 35 

13 00 

14 00 



SB 



neatly lined for Music 13 50 

ANY SIZE MADE TO ORDER. Black "Walnut frames Extra 1 00 

They are so framed that they are free to shrink or swell without possibility of splitting or warping. 



^- -= 




The utility of the blackboard is beyond discussion. It is an admitted necessity 
wherever teaching is to be done. The day-school teachek, Sunday-school teachee, 
Lectueeb on Science, and Peofessoe in college, each has constant need of it. 

It being indispensable, the question is. What blackboard is best ? The verdict 
of Science and testimony of teachers agree on the EUREKA. This surface is incom- 
parably THE BEST. The most costly natural slates do not equal it. It is finer and 
harder and blacker than slate. It is also smoother, and yet it never becomes glazed, 
and marks upon it are perfectly legible from any direction. ^ 

The portable Eurelta Slate is unrivalled. It is light, easily and safely handled, 
less liable than slate to breaks and scratches, more convenient to' use, much cheaper, 
besides being safely transportable. The surface, though hard as flint, never checks 
or separates from the wood. This elasticity of the Eureka Slate is one of its 
peculiar and most valuable properties. 

331aclt "boards. Spherical, or '* Slated Glol>es."— Invaluable 

in " Object Teaching," Mathematical Geography, etc., six sizes ^1 50 to ^30 OO 

BlaclcTaoard. Easel— KENDALL'S. New and Perfect. Patented 3 OO 

KlaclilJoard. Support— HAMMOND'S, very substaptial. 

Size adapted to any one of our Standard Blackboards, $6 ; same, made of black-walnut 7 SO 

I51aclcl)Oard. Iluljl>ers— 8 varieties. See Special Circular. Per doz.$l 50 to .5 50 

Blacltljoai'cl Pointers— Lengths from sj^ to s ft. each 30 

Crayons — White, per gross .—. 30; Colored, per gross - 1 35 

I doz. White, in neat paper box — 10 ; Do. colored—-. 30 

Crayon Holders — Recently invented, neat and economical, each. -^^ ^ 



BLACKBOARD EASELS, SUPPORTS ETC. 



Kendall's Black-board Easel is specially suited for class-rooms, lecture-halls, Sun- 
day-schools, and places where economy of space is an 
object. When not wanted, it can be folded up in a 
moment, and put away like an ordinary board. Its. 
portability, the little room it occupies when packed, and 
consequent cheapness of transportation make it a most 
convenient and economical Easel. It is Patented. 

Price, Ash, ^S.OO 

" Black Walnut, 3.60 







The Revolving Black-board Easel, for t^e Teacher's Desk or Table, hai 
for some years answered a good purpose in the schools of 
New York City, and is now first offered to the public. The 
first cut represents it occupied by a Black-board, the 
second cut shows its construction. ^rice, $5. 00, 




'■'- // '/( /iYf J' on/(/(J(rf^'' ^ff/ 




I''- CCCMe-i/.TC 



Hammond's Black-board Support, 

Obviating the disadvantages of movable black- 
boards, has become deservedly popular. The 
iron feet are sufficiently heavy to insure stability. 
It is rigid and substantial. There are no glued 
joints ; all the parts are firmly bolted together, 
and are taken apart for shipping. It has lock- 
pins for holding the board in position. It may 
be revolved either way — on horizontal or per- 

Eendicular axle — as shown in the cut. The 
oard touches the Support only on these pins, 
and is noiseless. Beneath the board is a shelf 
for crayons, and for the falling particles of chalk. 
It is a serviceable and ornamental piece of furni- 
ture for the school or lectu e-room. 
Size adapted to any one of our Stand- 
ard Wall Slates ^6 00 

Same, of black walnut, 7 50 

BlaclC Board It\lbl>ers, 8 varieties, Perdozen, $1.50 to 5.50 

DE2virelca "Wall Slates, neatly framed, 9 standard sizes Each, 3.50 to 13.50 

©lated Glotoes, for Mathematical Geography, etc., 6 sizes " 1.50 to 30.00 

BlaolC Board Pointers, Black Board Compasses, Crayons, Crayon Holders, ete. 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 81 

Blackboard Rubbers, 

For Erasing Marks from Blackboards and "Wall Slates of all Mnds. 

The dusty rag for clearing blackboards of marks, is disappearing with the slovenly 
teachers who were known in the past. No tidy teacher can permit the scattering of dust 
about the school-room, defiling the furniture, books, and dresses of pupils, besides damage- 
ing the health of teachei's and pupils. To meet the increasing demand for Erasers or 
Blackboard Rubbers, we manufacture the following varied styles : 

No. 0. Size 2 in. by 3 J in. The block is ash or other suitable wood, properly grooved 
for grasping with the hand. It is covered with sheepskin, usually " Shearling." The 
skin is securely fastened to the block and bound with binders' cloth. Price, perdoz. 1.50 

No. 1. Size 2 in. by 7 in. This is made in same manner and of same material as No. 0, 
differing only in length. Per doz 2.40 

No. 2. Size 2+ by 7 J in. Is covered with first-class lambskin, having heavy and dur- 
able wool. The binding is leather. Per doz 3.00 

No. 3. Is made of A 1 extra lambskin, having very fine long bleached wool, bound 
with red morocco. Per doz 4.00 

No. 4. "Brussels." This -rubber is made like No. 3, except that a good quality of 
Brussels carpeting takes the place of lambskin. Per doz 4.50 

No. 5. " Tapestry." This is covered with fine heavy velvet Tapestry carpeting. It 
is a handsome and efficient rabber, highly esteemed in young ladies' seminaries and 
colleges. Per doz 5.00 

No. 6. " California Rubber," Is made over an elaborate block, in three parts, screwed 
together, peculiar to this style. It is larger than regular size, and covered with superior 
heavy Red Plush. It requires no binding. Per doz 5.50 

No. 7. " The Chamois Rubber" — patented — consists of a series of strips of Chamois 
skin, securely fixed in hard-wood block, properly grooved. It is so arranged that the series 
of Chamois edges come in snug contact with the blackboard, most effectually removing 
every particle of dust, gathering it up between the folds. When filled, the dust may be 
entirely discharged by rubbing two rubbers briskly together — thus all the wasted chalk 
may be conveyed out of the school-room. It proves durable and is very highly appreciated. 
Per doz 5.00 

We claim that our Blackboard Rubbers are the very best manufactured. We will 
pay liberally for any new inventions or improvements on these articles. 



The Chamois Slate Eubber. 

"a gem foe the school-room 

It dispenses with sponge and water in erasing marks from the slate. No more need 

the teacher hear the frequent question, " Please, sir, may I go to wash my slate V Nor 

need the child spit upon his slate to erase the marks. 

It is made of wood and Chamois skin, arranged to bring a series of edges of skin 

snugly against the surface of slate. 

Every teacher will recommend it because of its real convenience and neatness. Every 

pupil will buy it. It costs no more than a good sponge. 

No. 1 — size 1 in. by \\ — price, per 100 5,00 

No. 2 — size 2 in. square — per 100 8.00 

(Specimens, by mail, of No. 1, 10 cents— of No. 2, 15 cents.) 



82 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



The Slate Pencil Holder. 
The cut represents it about half size. It is made of wood, bored to receive a regular 
four-inch slate pencil — a six-inch pencil broken in halves answers the purpose. Its size 
obviates the difficulties of other inventions, which are too small for the regular slate pen- 
cils offered for sale. Its advantages are too manifest to require enumeration here. Every 
teacher knows how desirable it is to have a device which is large enough and long enough 
to prevent the irregular bits of slate pencils from cramping the chil^rens' fingers and injur- 
ing them for writing. The pencil is held securely in place on the same plan as the crayon 
in the crayon holder, fully illustrated below. It can be used as a pen holder. 

(Specimens mailed for 10 cents.) Price, eacli 5 cents. 




The Crayon Holder, Full Size. 

Its length is adapted to receive an entire crayon (which should be inserted small end 
first). Its great merit, hitherto unattained, is that it is short enough to be held easily and 
naturally in the hand, as a crayon. It is light and pleasant to the touch, and cannot soil 
the dress and fingers. Being made entirely of wood, it will not scratch the blackboard. 
It will quickly save more than its cost in utilizing the small pieces of crayons which cannot 
be held in the fingers. 

(Specimens »iai7ec^ for 15 cents.) Price, each 10 cents. 




The New Blackboard Dividers 

Are made to receive and hold crayons in the same manner as the 

crayon holder. Each leg is adapted to receive a crayon, which is 

frequently a great convenience, in drawing parallel lines, and for 

various other purposes. In the cut one leg of the dividers is 

occupied by a piece of wood with a sharp metallic point. This 

renders the length of the leg adjustable. The head is fitted with 

a strong set-screw, which cannot get out of order. These dividers have no equal, and arc 

cheaper than the common articles. The same patent covers the slate pencil holder, the 

crayon holder, and the new blackboard dividers, or " crayon compasses." 

Price, . . . . $1.00 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 83 

Object Teaching Aids. 

THE SPELLINO STICK AND THE SENTENCE STICK. 



rat JmleUtt 





The Spelling Stick consists of a piece of wood properly fashioned and grooved for 
holding the letters. It has a handle as shown in the cut. It is accompanied by letters on 
card-board — one set of Capitals, and a " three-a font" of lower-case letters. 

Teachers of primary classes, with the aid of this simple device, will find it easy to fix 
the attention of their pupils, teach the forms of the letters, and how to combine them into 
words. By its use words and their spelling may be taught to a large class with less 
outlay of time and patience than is required for teaching a single pupil with the book alone. 

The Sentence Stick has precisely the same construction. It is accompanied by 135 
common words, on card-board. It is useful in teaching primarians to construct sentences, 
just as the Spelling Stick aids in constructing words. The first principles of grammar 
and composition may be pleasantly illustrated, and attention may be called to the common 
errors of speech. In the hands of a skillful teacher its uses may be greatly extended and 
multiplied. 

These Simple instruments have been successfully tested by many teachers, and are highly 
esteemed for their practical utility. Their rank, as to efficiency in the school-room, is 
equal, or superior, to the Numeral Frame. 

Spelling Sticks, or, '• Word-making" Sticks for Primarians, each $0.25 

Fonts of letters, on card-board, for 8ame, in box 0.50 

Sentence Sticks, for Primarians "to build up sentences" 0.25 

Seta of Small words, on card-board, for same, in box 0.50 

Alphabet Charts, 24 x 40 inches, heavy Manilla, with rollers :— 

No. 1. Capital Letters and Arabic Figures (75 cts. each) i . 

No 2. Small Letters, Points, aud Roman Numerals (75 cts. each) j *°*' P"^^"^ * *"" 

Alphabet Charts, Indestructible, 24 x 36 inches, with rollers, These are entirely 
new, being printed w» doth, in oil colors, by Dr. Johnson's patent process : — 



No. 1. Capital Letters and Arabic Figures (75 cts. each) i 

No. 2. Small Letters, Points, and Roman Numerals (75 cts. each) f '"° P'"'' 



1.50 



Alpliabet Blocks, Hill's. No. 1, per box 0.25 

No. 2, 35 cts. ; No. 3, 40 cts. : No. 4, 60 cts. ; No. 6, $1 ; No. 6 l.a& 



84 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



Object Teaching Aids. 

Color-Cubes, with direction for use $1.25 

This set of Color-Cubes comprises eight Cubes : — six of which contain six colors on 
each — red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple. The other two Cubes contain white, 
black, drab, russet, citrine, blue, on each. The set is put up in a paper box, with a sheet 
of directions for use. 

Kindergarten Blocks, au Proebel, per box $1.00 

Miss Peabody suggests that the teacher can find nothing better than these blocks to aid 
in conveying elementarj- ideas of Foem. They are easily susceptible of reduction to a 
great variety of forms, such as Arches, Arcades, Bridges, Castles, Chairs, Churches, 
Columns, Gateways, Houses, Sentry-boxes, etc., etc. 




NUMERAL FRAMES 

OF SDFEBIOB STYLE AND WORKMANSHIP. 

No. 1— With 100 BaUs $1.25 

No. 2— With 144 BaUs 1.50 

The Abacus, or Numeral Frame, is now a 
very popular and almost indispensable aid in 
teaching children to count, and in giving them 
correct ideas of numbers, and of their first 
lessons in addition, subtraction, etc. 

Valuable and ingenious hints for its use may 
be found in "Calkins' Classified List (illustrated) 
of Object Teaching Aids, for Home and Schools." 
(Price, 10 cents.) 



MATHEMATICAL BLOCKS, DISSECTED. 

1. The Cube Root Block — " To one place," in neat box $0.60 

This may be mailed (letter postage) for SI .25. 

2. The Cube Root Block— "To two places" O.SO 

3. The Cube Root Block— " To two places, larger 1.00 

These are accurately dissected blocks, invaluable in illus- 
trating the rule of Cube Root. One of them should be in the 
hands of every teacher who attempts to instruct pupils in that 
usually troublesome part of Arithmetic. 
i. Dissected Cone— sections of diiferent colored wood— for illus- 
trating conic sections. Large size, 8 inches high, 4| mches 

diameter at base 2.60 

Melville's Complete Drawing and Building Blocks. Elaborate and 

very supt^rior §16.00 

For use in Art Schools, Scientific Schools, Colleges, Academies, and High Schools. 




SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



85 



New Forms and Solids 



FOE OBJECT TEAOHINa. 

Containing sixty-four pieces — there being forty-eight Plane Forms, fifteen 

Solids, and a six-inch Rule, among which are several NEW 

Forms and Solids, not included in any other set. 

Each Form is stamped with its Number in the List. 



1 . Eciiiilateral Triangle. 

2. Eight Angled " 

3. " 

4. Obtuse " " 

5. Curved " 



12. Rhomboid. 

13. Trapezium. 

14. Trapezoid. 

15. Pentagon. 

16. Hexagon. 



6. Triangle— one curved side. I'j;, Heptagon. 

7. Isosceles Triangle. 18. Octagon. 

8. Scalene " 19. Nonagon. 

9. Square. 20. Decagon. 

10. Oblong. 21. Circle. 

11. Rhomb. 22. Semi-Circle 

PRICE (neatly put up in substantial wood bos), $2 

A complete illustrated description of these Forms and Solids 

Classified List of Object Teaching Aids (price 



23. Quadrant. 

24. Segment. 

25. Sector. 

26. Ring. 

27. Crescent. 

28. Ellipse. 

29. Oval. 

30. Sphere. 

31. Hemi-Sphere. 

32. Prolate-Spheroid. 

33. Oblate. 



34. Ovoid. 

35. Cylinder. 

36. Cone. 

37. Conoid. 

38. Cube. 
39o Square Prism. 

40. Triangular Prism 

41. Hexagonal " 

42. Square Pyramid. 

43. Triangular " 

44. Six-inch Rule. 
,75. 

appears in Calkins' 
10 cents). 



Greometrical Forms and Arithmetical Solids. 
Each Piece is stamped with its Number, as in the List. 



1. Sphere. 

2. Hemisphere. 

3. Prolate Spheroid. 

4. Oblate Spheroid. 

5o Pyramid and Prustrum. 
6o Cone and Frustrum. 
•Jo Cylinder. 



8. Triangular Prism. 15. Parallelopipedon. 

9. Square Prism. 16. Parallelopipedon. 
1 Oo Hexagonal Prism. 1 7. Parallelopipedon. 

1 1 . Cube. IS. Oblique Prism (3 pieces). 

12. Cube (Eight times No. 11). 19. Parallelopipedon. 

1 3. Cube (Eight times No. 12). 20. Parallelopipedon. 

14. Parallelopipedon. 21. Carpenter's Theorem (4 pieces). 



Twenty-sis Pieces, in substantial wood box, $2.50. 



Parallelogram. 
The Goiligrapll is a small instrument resembling somewhat a jointed carpenter's 
rule, but made so as to bend in only two directions. It is made with several short rulers, 
or joints of iron or brass, fastened together by pivots. With it may be formed all the 
geometrical figures that consist of straight lines and angles, some of which are illustrated 
by the accompanying engravings. 




Square. 



^ Rhomb. 



Pentagon. 
Price, in wood, 25 cts. | whalebone, 40 cts. ; metal, 50 cts. 




Triangle. 



Octagon. 



CALL-BELLS. 



r I iHE old-time School-master, emphasized his COM- 
-*- MANDS by heavy thwacks of a ruler — sometimes on 
the desks, and sometimes on the sconces of his terri- 
fied pupils. The Call-Bell is a better instrument, and 
has become as indispensable as the ruler or strap used 
to be — much to the relief of both teachers and taught. 
The bells shown in the cuts are silver-plated, and of fine tone. The 
cuts represent one-fifth size. 




No. 1. 




IVo. 2, 



No. 3. 



No. 5. 



No. 6. 




No. 7. 



No. S. 



No. 9. 



No. 10. 




No. I, 



PRICE LIST. 

Fancy Bronze Base $ go 

Fancy Base i oo 

Fancy Bronze Base i lo 

Black Marble Base i 15 

Fancy Bronze Base 1 25 

Fancy Bronze Base 145 

Black Base i 60 

Bronze Base . . i 75 

Black Base i 8s 

White Marble Base i 95 

Bronze Base 2 05 

Black and Gold Base 3 50 




Silver Plated Hand-Bells, 




Jio. 1. Gong 
Sliape. 70c. 



No. 3. 70c. 



No. 3. 50c. 



No. 4. 70c. 



No. 5. $1.70. 



Hand-Bells of Pure Copper and Tin, 



No. 



1, Extra 

2, «' 

3, " 

4, " 

5, " 

6, " 

7, " 

8, " 

9, " 
10, " 
12, " 
14, ^' 



Warranted superior in tone ; twelve sizes. 

Diameter. 

Polish, 2g inch. 

" 21 " 



.3^ 

.31 
M 
.5 

.6 

M 
.61 
.7 



Height. 
3g inch. 
4i " 
5i " 
6i " 
61 " 
7i " 
84 " 
8i 
9^ 

10 

lOi 

11 



^0.20 
.25 
.SO 
.4-5 

.7^ 
.90 
/./.? 
7.60 
2.00 
2.4.0 
3.00 



Patent Spring Tape Measures. 




Three Feet Measures, in Silver Plated Cases, Price, 45 CentsL 

Five " " " " " " 50 " 

Six " " " " " " 55 

Three " " in Lacquered Brass Cases, " 46 '• 

Five " " " " " "50 «♦ 

Six " " " " " " 55 " 

Three ' " in Nickel Silver Cases, " 65 " 

Five " " " '• 70 " 

Bix " •' '♦ '« "75 " 









OCHOOL L^LOCKS. 




No. 1. 

No. I. Octagon Marine, one day, 
6 in. Dial $4.00 

No. 2, Drop Octagon, Spring,Eight 
day, Height 25 in 6.00 

In response to frequent calls from teachers 
and School Officers for clocks suitable for 
school use, the foregoing styles have been 
selected as best adapted for that purpose. 

These clocks are of the best American manufacture and are reliable time- 
keepers. 




Timby's Globe Time Piece, 

l^or illustrating t?te reltt" 
tions of jDovffitiede and Time, 

The Time Piece consists of an eight- 
day clock, with a globe so mounted as 
to make one rcvohitiou every twenty- 
four hours, thus bringing each meri- 
dian directlj' under the sun (represented 
by a gilded ball), once a day ; while the 
pointer, which shows on the moving 
dial our time, points constantly to that 
part of the earth crossed by the noon 
meridian. The time at every other 
part of the earth may be ascertained 
from the meridians. The Dial en- 
circles the Globe, and revolves with it. 
The globe may be turned either way 
without injury to the clock-movement. 
The whole apparatus may be placed 
on its back or in any position desired 
for the study of the globe, or for illustrating the relations of longitude and time. 
The Clock is simple in consiruction, strong and durable, and is offered at a price but 
little greater than is asked for an ordinary clock of corresponding finish. The bal- 
ance-wheel is set in jewels, and every care is taken to ensure a first-class Time Piece, 

Price, (Box for packing 75 cts.) $2.').00. 




tBONF VIbW 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 89 

Thermometers, Barometers, etc. 

" The teacher cannot trust his own feelings to regulate the temperature of the 
school-room." 



Our Thermometers arc mantrfkcturefl by one of the oldest establishments in the country, 
whose reputation is not surpassed T5y any in America or in Europe. These standard 
instruments are used by the Smirtisonian Institution, at Washington, D. C. 

List of sizes, styles, and prices. — Liberal discounts by the dozen. 

7 Inch, White Tube, Tin Case each, 

8 
10 
12 

8 
10 

8 
10 



Mahogany Case " 

t( <i it 

Rosewood Case " 



Standards. 



10 Inch, White Tin Oaae, Single Degree Ruby 
12 " " " " " 

12 " " " Half D gree Rubv . 



0.50 
.55 
.60 
.T5 
.80 
.S5 
.90 

1.00 



Rain Gai^e — the Smithsonian 

Glass Hydrometers, of usual styles, at manufacturers' prices. 
Barometers, Aneroid and Mercurial, several styles, at usual rates 



, " 1.25 
1.50 
2.25 

price, 5.00 



90 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



Aids to Neatness and Cleanliness. 

' ]|7in<erf>' mat/ be requisite for the >ieatne,-!S anil t/wd orda- of a prirnte residence, cannot be 
out of place, for the same purpitses, in a Schix^l -House." 




Shoe Scrapers, with Patent Revolving Brushes. 

No. 1. — For fastoning to wood steps, price, 

No. 2. — For fasteniug to stoue steps, price, 



$2.00 
2.00 




No. 3.— Oval Pan Shoe Scraper, with Revolving Brushes, 



$2.50. 




No. 4.— Square Pan Shoe Scraper, with Revolving Brushes, 

Door ITIutii Three Sizes, 17 iu. by 25 in. ; 18 in. by 33 in. ; 

Jute, each, $0.65 $0.75 

Coir, ordinary " .90 1.10 

Coir, solid " 1.25 1.50 

Rope, " 1.25 1.65 

Modem School Officers require no arguments to convince them 
for articles such as those in every school. Live teachers will sec th; 
stantly used wlicn provided, and school children v>'\]\ acquire habits, thr 
these articles, which will adhere to them through their lives, and make 
women of them. 



- $3.00. 

19 in. by 36 in. 

$0.90 

1.10 

1.75 

3.00. 

of the necessity 

at they ore con- 

•ouph the use of 

better men and 



SCHOOL MATERIAL, 



91 



Shades, Hat Racks, Dusters, and Sweepers. 

" It is most important that the school-room be kept perfectly comfortable, cheerful, and 
clean." 

For School-room Windows the Rustic Shade is rwommended 
on account of its flimplicity, durability, and cheapness. It is 
furnished complete, rca<ly to be put up with two nails or screws. Tbey 
may be had in any colors — brown, blue, buff, pearl, green, or oiled 
walnut. The last two arc generally required for school puqjoses. 
They arc made for windows of any size. In sending dimensions for 

ordering the " Rustic Shades," give the full length and width of the 

window, allowing on the width aljout one inch over on each side. 
Circular with prices, sent on application. 



^yfffi 




Hat and Oloak Racks. Four sizes, 4 to 8 hooks on each; price, 50 CtS. tO $1.00. 

The frames are made of lilack walnut, held together by screw rods ; the hooks are iron, 
nicely coppered and well lacquered to prevent tarnishing in any climate. 




School Furniture Dusters. 48 kinds, varying in size and color, 
each, 15 cents to $3.50 5— Colored, 25 cents to $4.00. 



Plain, 




The Champian Dustless School-House Floor Sweeper, large size, price §3,00« 



Aids to School Discipline: 



A sri>sri ir no i.\>k 



Sclio©! Kecords, Jieporfs, ana rrizes. 

NEW AM) ArritOritlATE DEISIUKS, rKlNTEl) IN COLOKS. 



An accurato ivsristor of doportmont aiul scholarship pixtinotos hoalthy omuhuion. Yot 
such a rciiistcr is raivly kept. Teachers eanunt iveonl each recitation as it occurs, hence 
the tveonl is nei^jKvTcil tor the time, ami afterwanl niaile fnnn memory. IVrfici aeciiracv 
being intpossiMe, conniinuY in the ircord is tirnkriuit (lud its wf^nilforrr lost. The Aid's 
secure the jixiod n'sults of accurate ivcords and ivports, witii h\ss expense ot' time. 

The Aids natnrallv and inevitably aw.iken a lively paternal inteivst, for the pupil 
takes home witli him tlu- witness of' his Jai/i/ conilurt and proijirss. 

The Aids may lie used in various ways. This is convenient : In the morning give each 
pupil a Card (."i merits), ivpn.>senting a i><rt'a-t ihii/, to he forfeited for ujisdemeanor, or fail- 
ure in iveitation. Single Merits and Half-Merits are for pupils who fail to retain (heir 
Cards and yet are wortliy of some credit. Five Cards held bv any jnipil are exchanged 
fur a Check {'2'i merits), represeutiug a perfect School MV<A-. Four Checks uiv ex- 
chaugctl for a Certificate of Merit, ix'presentiuix IW merits, or a perfect Month. These 
Certificates bear the pupil's name, and arc signed by the teacher. The number held 
slunvs the pupil's standing. 

If pri/.es or medals are awarded at close of session, theiv can bo uo jnistakc in deter- 
niiuiug to whom they lielong: the decision being matle by each pupil exhibiting his Cards 
and Certificates, no idea of favoritism can arise. 

It is needless to discuss the value of proper incentives, for either childivn or adidts. 
The use of Millions of these Aids, with the unbounded apj)tx)val of Teachers, Parents, 
and Pupils, assures us that they are doing great gooil. 

Thev are neat in design, "printed in iwcsr l\iIors. The Certificates aiv jn-izes 
whieirpnpils will cherish. Single Merits and llaU'-Merits are printed ou card-board; 
Cards and Cheeks on heavv paper, and may be used many times — heiu'c the system is 
Clioap. Thev are put up in sets of 500, "there being 80 Certificates, 120 Checks, 
200 Cards, 100 Siuglo Merits and Half Merits. " rrifo, por sot (milUoil) $1.25. 



Sii|>i>Iictl separately (liy mall): 

$iii;:'lo Merits, per humlreil .15 

Cards (tivcs^ per bimdred .15 



Ilall-I»Ierlts, per hundred 15 

dieekx it'»*eiity-llves'> per humlreil, ..JO 
CertHleates* JiiiiKlredw) per huuilred, ,60 



■ri3LO IKTox'^r JSol^ool 3\Xoci.«X 





Is here shown, on both sides. It is made of a Superior White Metal, and will not easily tarnish. 
On one side, above the word "E.xcellence," is opportunity to ensjrave the (/d^c of presenting the 
Medal. On tho other side, the pupil's name may be engraved on the Scn^l. (The engraving costs, 
in New York, three cents a letter or llj:ure ; ou receipt of tho money, we will set It done at that rate. 
In most localities, some jeweller can be found to do it quite as well.) This is tlio best Seliool 
Medal now made, and is highly appreciated. Price, .25; by iiinll, prepaid, .35. 



8CH00L mati;kial. 



'J'.i 



The Scliool Index, or "J{oll of Ifoiior." 

** Honor and nhume frtym no condif/lf/n rinfi : 
Act weM ytyu/r imrt, tJtere all the hfrntyr lien.'^ 

To t(:'M,]it:rn who kcjqi a T(j-A>ri\ of the wr^rk i><:rionuiA \iy tlicir 
(■Annnaa, and art weary of writin;^ out, wc<;k afu.r w(;';k, t}ic riatncn 
and relative nieritH of eaf;h of their pupil-f, the School Ishkx will 
fx; welw^rne, on iUJ-Jtuul of the eaw; with whieh, by its aid, they ean 
iiiTJ/Tiii)\in\i what has hitherf^ \x^m an arduous tank. Its c/matruo 
tion ih clearly illustrated in the a/xt'^rnpanying cut. It vj/tiniiitn of a 
frame in whicli are arranjj*^] hmall pif;/'/;(> of w'^jd, on which the 
narrieH of the pupils are to \><: writt<;n. Thew; can U; taken out and 
moved at pleasure. One hide of the frame is ]i]u'^<-A to ivlnih of its 
]n-jrti: opened when any chan;^c in the position of a nam(j-strip h 
rc/jiiircd. On the Otb(;r uldc, wJiich in Ujy.cA, are nuni}x;rs, as shown 
in the cut. 






In ct>nxm:Ut>n with the AId>» to HfJlool OiHCiplfnc, the 

K(;llool ItifJcx furnishes an a/;eurate and reliable means of 
showin;^ the standin;,' of every pupil. The " Aids" and the " Index" 
U^j.^ether, fomi a ]n:rfi-/:t System of School V<.(^j>r(\i. Af the expira- 
tion of a "quarter" or any s[><;cified time, each pupil produ%« hU 
Cards and Certificates, and his rank lx;injj determined by the nurn- 
lx;r of thes<: in his possession, his name can easily ly; put in its proper 
place in tlie Index. If any error in arrangernrmt is ilihcjjvtrcil, it 
can \)b easily fArrf;/;f:d. In this rftS]:>ect, the sujx;riority of the School 
Index over the ordinary Merit Koll is r</dA.'i\y wxn. Where the Aiilu 
are not ubc^I, the In'lex can >xs rn^ule to take the yjlace of the " Merit 
Il^oll" or " Sch'xjl K«x»rd," — the preparation of wliich Jias always 
caused a waste of much valuable time and ef&^rt. 

The Index may fxj used to show the standing of ea^.h pupil 
as t/> Hf;holarhhip alone, or s<;holarhhip U^gether with dej/mrnf^nt and 
HtUindnncji. As it is to hi displays! in a prominent plaf*, where it 
can Ui ht-JiTi and examinwl not only by the pupils but by parents and 
othcTs who visit the mh(><jh, it will nwxissarily liave a R'neficial 
influencMj on the conduct and diligence of the classes. 

If desired, it can hi uscl to show the rank of ea/;h pupil as U) Jx;ha- 
vior alone, and in this casf;, will U: a j/jwerful aid in school govern- 
ment — hv.JSfi FiKHT dejx;nding on JiK/.vo ooojj, every one will nat- 
urally strive to exw;l in gcx^d conduct. 

The School Index is simple in fy;instruction; easily man- 
age] ; can never get out of ordCT, thenj UHng no " rnaf-diinery" what- 
ever a>>out it; can }xi intr^yluc^;^! without making any changes in 
the manner of governing or marking.; is neat in design ; and Is light, 
f/^rtable, and cJif/ip. 

Wherever introdur>f;d, its use has Umu attended with the hap- 
plent re»Mlt«», and has callwl forth the praise of ir/.y-.n'-.uwl 
teacher-,. 

Price, plain, ^2.00 

Price, made or black vialnut, 82. oO 



94 



WORKS OF ART. 



Rogers' School Groups. 

'Works of art are invaluable hi educating the taste of the young." 




The School Examination. — One of the School Committee has come to examine the 
school, and is pointing out, good-naturedly, on the slate, the mistake the little girl has 
made in her " sum," while the teacher stands by to encourage her. 

Height, 20 inches. — "Weight, when packed, 80 pounds. — Price 15.00 




Uncle Ned's School. — An old negro booLulack is keeping school, but one of his 
pupils, a mulatto girl, has asked him a puzzling question, while a lazy little bo}] is mis- 
chievously tickling his foot, which he feels, but is too much occupied to attend to it. 

Height, 20 inches. — Weight, when packed, 90 pounds. — Price 15,00 



SCHOOL MATERIAL —Part VI. 
SCHOOL STATIONERY, etc. 

OOKTTElKrTS- 





PAGE 


Artists' Material, ...... 


103 


Blotters and Blotting Paper, . . 2 - 


. 106 


Book Carriers and Book Rests, . . . - 


113 


Bristol Board, T . . . . - 


. Ill 


Calendars, --..... 


110 


Composition Books and Composition Paper, 


- 105 


Drawing Books and Drawing Papers, - - 


111 


Envelopes, .--_.-. 


- 109 


Erasable Tablets, ...... 


111 


Erasers, ....... 


- 106 


Exercise Books, ...... 


105 


Initial Papei-, - • - 


- 107 


Ink — Fancy, ....... 


100 


School and Record, ..... 


97 


Inkstands — Teachers', w . . . . . 


100 


Ink Vents, --..... 


99 


Ink-Wells and Ink- Well Covers, - . . - 


98, 99 


Lead Pencils, - . ,. . . 


- 103 


Lettsr Clips and Board Clips, ..... 


lOS 


Lunch Boxes, - - - - . 


- 112 


Manuscript Paper, --.,... 


107 


Mucilage and Mucilage Stands, . .' . . 


- 108 


Papers— Note, Letter, Cap,- ..... 


107 


Paper Weights and Folders, .... 


- 108 


Pencil File, - - . - «. . . 


103 


Penholders, - " - . > . 


- 106 


Pen and Pencil Baskets and Racks, • - 


104 


Pens — Spcncerian Steel, . - . . . 


- 101 


Propelling Pencils, - - 


103 


Post-Office Boxes, *'.-.- 


- 110 


Reward-of-Merit Cards and Testimonials, 


114 


Rulers, - ...... 


- 106 


School Bags, ........ 


112 


Slates — Common, Book, and Fancy ... 


96 


Slate Pencils, --.-... 


96 


Slate Pencil and Penholder, . . . . . 


- 103 


Rubbers, -.-.... 


96 


Spenceriau Penmanship, . . . . . 


- 102 


Steel Pens, - - .... 


101 


Stationer's Gum, ..... 


- 103 


Stationery Cases, --.... 


- 107,110 


Writing Books, --.... 


105 



96 



SCHOOL STATIONERY. 



Slates, Book-slates, Fancy Slates, Slate Pencils, 

SLATE RUBBEBS, Etc. 





Size, 



New Oval or oval edges with 

oval round comers. 

[ X 6 iuches.. .price per doz., $1.30 

) X 7 " " " 1.50 

1x9" " " 2.10 

]i X 10 " " " 2.20 

: X 11 " " " 2.40 

i X 12 " " " 2.90 

I X 1.3 " " " 3.50 

3} X 14 " " " 4.80 



Size, 



Round Corner Counting-House Slates. 
Two Slates, united with brass hinges. 

9 inches, price per doz., $6,87 

8.28 
S.90 
10.68 
11.75 
12.75 
12.75 
13.00 
19.15 
25.50 



6 


X 9 inc 


7 


X 11 


H 


X 14 ' 


8 


X 12 ' 


7 


X 15 ' 


9 


X 13 ' 


« 


X 16 


a* 


X 14 ' 


11 


X 16 ' 


12 


X 18 ' 



Contents of Assorted Cases of New Oval. 



Sizes. 


5x7 


6x9 


6|xl0 


7x11 


8x12 


9x13 




Per Case. 


No. 1 
No. 2 


3 


2 
2 


2 

2 


3 
2 


3 

1 





DOZ. 


$i2$.00 
22.40 



Liberal discounts on quantities, and by the case. 
Book Slates. — The following contain three slates each, hinged together, and 
covered with stifP covers, like a book. 
Sizes in inches, 3| x 6| price each, $0.67 



.SO 
1.15 



1.75 



41x73- 

" 5^x9 

Fancy Double Slates, — Superior quality and finish, set in fine wood panelled 
cases, polished and highly oniamented, brass hinges, imported. Eight sizes. 

Price (variable with gold) each, .§5 to 

SLATE PENCILS. — At lowest rates, which are variable with gold. 

German. — Five, six, and seven inches, in wooden boxes per hundred, 

Soapstone. — Four, five, and six inches, paper boxes " " 

Composition. — Six inches, wooden boxes per gross, 

SLATE RUBBER.— Chamois— "a gem for the school-room." 

It dispenses with sponge and water, in erasing marks from the slate. No more need 
the teacher hear the frequent question, " Please, sir, may I go to wash my slate V Nor 
need the child spit upon his slate to erase the marks. 

It is made of wood and Chamois skin, arranged to bring a series of edges of skin snugly 
against the surface of the slate. 

Every teacher will recommend it because of its real convenience and neatness, 
pupil will buy it. It costs no more than a good sponge. 

No. 1— size 1 x H inches price per 100, 

No. 2 — size 2 inches square " 

(Specimens, by mail, of No. 1, 10 cents — of No. 2, 15 cents. 



Every 

5.00 
§.00 



SCHOOL STATIONERY. 



97 



School and Record Ink. 





Our School Ink is specially put up 
for school use, and is better adapt- 
ed to all school purposes than any 
other ink that we can get made. It 
flows freely, and flows jet black 
from the pen ; it has no sediment ; 
it does not " gum up" the pen and 
inkstand; it is unsurpassed in 
color, and it is cheap. 

It is neatly and substantially put up, 
smallest size in glass cones; the half- 
pints, pints, and quarts in good glass 
bottles ; and the half-gallons and gal- 
lons in square tin cans, for compact and 
safe shipment to any distance. 

Price List of onr Scliool IiiL 

Octagonal Cones, glass, per dozen, $0.60 
Half-pints, - " " 

Pints, - - " " 

Quarts, - • " " 

Half-gallons, square tin cans, each, 
Gallons, " " " 

On Draught, $1.50 per gallon, 
of keg or barrel to be added. 



1.75 
3.50 
6.00 
1.00 
2.00 
Cost 



Comress RecorJ IiiL 

No. 1 Stands per gross, $6.00 

N0.3 " " 10-00 

Half-pints per dozen, 2,75 

Pints " 4.00 

Quarts " 7.00 

(Two-thirds size.) 

Arnold's Writing Fluid— all sizes. It being imported prices fluctuate with gold. 

All other kinds of ink supplied at lowest rates when called for. 



98 



SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



Ink-Wells, Ink-Well Covers, etc. 



Glass luk-wells are in very great 




demand. The points to be regarded in selecting 
them are few. First, it is neces- 
sary to secure the largest pos- 
sible capacity, and yet have 
them fit the usual bore of school 
desks. Second, good glass is 
necessary, in order to avoid 
waste from breakages, and 
consequent damage to books. 
Such an ink-well is illustrated, 
ftlll size, in the cut. It is 
shoAvn beneath a cast-iron cover, 
japanned and hinged. 

is struck out of sheet-brass, and lacquered. Instead 




The New Brass Ink-well Cover 

of having a hinge, it revolves on 
a screw, and is noiseless. It is 
very neat, and gives a bright and 
ornamental appearance to the 
desk. It must be admitted that 
whatever contributes to the good 
appearance of school furniture, 
is of advantage. We cannot do 
too much to make the school- 
room look pleasant and cheerful, 
and thus cultivate the taste of 
pupils. 



The Non-corroding Metallic Ink-well, shown, full size, in the cut, was 
invented in 1868. By a new process the 
interior is made insoluble by ink, securing 
all the advantages of glass, with increased 
capacity, strength, and durability. The loss 
and annoyance of breakage in handling and 
by frost is entirely disposed of 

The metal may be kept bright, giving an 
ornamental appearance to the desk. The 
cover is thoroughly secured with a brass 
hinge. It is made of standard size, to fit 
the usual bore of school desks. 

Non-corroding Metallic Ink Sock- 
ets, being the same as shown in the cut 
without the cover, are supplied for use 
with the ordinary iron covers, or with the 
new brass covers. They are durable and 
economical. The size is adapted to the 
usual bore of school desks. 




SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



99 



Ink-Wells, Ink- Well Covers, Ink Vents, etc. 

The American Iiocking Ink-well Cover is a new invention, intended to supply the 

need of a locking cover for the common glass 
ink-wells, or any of the ordinary ink sockets. 
It is easily and readily fixed to any desks 
without the use of screws, letting in flush 
with the desk top. It is made of iron, and 
is japanned. The cut exhibits top view. 

The opening in the top is sufficient for 
any size pen. It also admits the key for 
locking the cover securely fast to the desk. 
The size and peculiar shape of the opening 
is not liable to be fitted by any knife or other 
instrument which pupils are likely to have 
about them. 

The pen opening is tightly closed by a little pivoted cover which keeps out the dust, and 
prevents evaporation of the ink. 

In short, this device has more real advantages than any of the complicated and expen- 
sive " patent locking ink-wells ;" it can be used with the glass ink-wells already on hand ; 
and is simple, having no screws and no hinges ; it is durable and it is cheap. 




Scarlett's Ink Vent for filling Inkstands and Ink-wells. — With this vent, a 
steady stream may be poured, and cut off promptly. All overflow- 
ing inkstands and wells, and dripping of ink upon clothing and 
furniture, is thus avoided. The ink escapes at a. Should a drop 
cling to the orifice, instead of falling on furniture or floor, it is con- 
ducted back to the bottle, through the inclined gutter c. At b there 
is a small passage to the interior of the bottle. This is too small to 
permit perceptible evaporation, and yet admits sufficient air to canse 
the ink to flow from a. 

The convenience of this invention will be appreciated by all who 
have had experience in filling inkstands in the old-fashioned way. 
The cork is made tapering, to fit the mouth of ani/ ink-bottle. 

Specimens may be sent by mail for 25 cents. 




PRICE LIST OF IM-fELLS, COVERS, 7ENTS, ETC. 

Glass Ink-wells, or Sockets, shown incut per dozen, 

Iron Covers, japanned, with hinge 

Brass Covers, lacquered, new and extra neat 41 

Non-corroding Metallic Ink Sockets « 

Non-corroding Metallic Ink-wells, wih covers 

American Locking Ink-well Cover « 

Britannia Ink-wells, glass lined « 

Ink Vents, Scarlett's Patent, for filling Ink-wells " 



$0.75 
.76 
1.00 
1.00 
1.75 
1.00 
2.35 
2.40 



100 



SCHOOL STATIONERY. 



Teachers' Inkstands 




Reservoir Inkstand. Calendar Inkstand. 

Morgan's Patent Reservoir and Calendar Inkstands are well adapted for use in 
the school-room, on the teachers' desks. The dipping cup is constantly supplied with 
pure ink at a uniform depth. The sediment is prevented from flowing into the dipping 
cup by a bar between it and the reservoir. 

A convenient calendar, and a tasteful pen-rack are combined with the Reservoir Ink- 
stand (No. 1), to make the Calendar Inkstand (No. 2). 

1. — Reservoir Inkstand price each, $0.25 

2. — Calendar Inkstand, with calendar and bronze pen-rack i . " " ,90 

3. — Reversible Inkstand " " 1 .OO 

No. 3, — The Teachers' Reversible Inkstand consists of a glass pot with a ground 

shoulder, into which fits a water- 
tight funnel with a hollow stem and 
rim. The air which is forced down 
upon the ink causes it to rise the 
required height in the stem. 

I T~ /C j^lp''^ ~^ ^^^ When the stand is reversed, the 

f — ^i—^r^ irar^^ I i"^^ ^^^^ '^^ already in the stem, and 

^^"^^^^^^^^^ no more, will flow down into the 

hollow rim, where it stays till the 
stand is again brought to its up- 
right position. Its chief points are : 
"THE INK can't GET OUT." 1- The ink cannot be spilled. 2. 

The pen will always reach just enough to fill it. 3. The ink is protected from the dust 
and evaporation. 4. The entire funnel can be removed to replenish with fresh ink. 
5. It is simple, being made entirely of glass. 6. It is cheap, costing but $1.00. 

Fancy Inks. —Writing and Copying combined. 

Violet, Perfumed, 2 ounce octagon conos per dozen, $0.75 

Violet, square stands, flint glass " 1.25 

Carmine, superior, flint glass draped stands ... " \J79 

Carmine, superior, flint glass draped stands, ground glass stoppers " 2.50 

Assorted, Twelve Colors, square stands, |lint glass " 1.50 




SCHOOL MATERIAL. 



101 



The Celebrated Spencerian Steel Pens. 

The well-known durability and perfect action of these pens, arc owing to a peculiar 
process in carbonizing ; and the main secret of their popularity is the fact that they are 
manufactured under the supervision of the Original Inventor of steel pens, whose 
great experience, combined with the aid of the most skilled vrorkmen in Europe, 
enable us to offer an article as yet unsurpassed in all the qualities that are required in 
pens adapted to every style of writing. They are a nearer approximation to the real 
Swan Quill than anything hitherto invented. These pens are indorsed, and constantly 
used by the best penmen in the country. They are used exclusively in all the first-class 
Commercial Colleges in the United States and Canadas. They are more largely used 
than any other pens by Cashiers, Tellers, Book-keepers, etc., in the principal hanking 
houses throughout the country. They are used by all who have given them a trial. They 
comprise fiftegn numbers, viz. : 




PRICES BY MAIL: 

No, 1, COLLEGE PEN. Point Fine ; Action Perfect Price per Gross, $1.25 

No. 2. COUNTING-HOUSE PEN. Point Fine and Flexible " " 1,25 

No. 3. COMMERCIAL PEN. Point Medium " " 1,25 

No. 4, LADIES' EXTRA PEN. Point Extra Fine and Flexible " " 1,40 

No. 5. SCHOOL PEN. Point Fine. Medium in Flexibility " "• 1.25 

No. 6. FLOURISHING PEN. Point Long, Flexible, and Medium in 

Fineness " " 1,25 

No. 7 . QUILL PEN. Point Medium, QaiU Action " " l ,60 

No. 8. CONGRESS PEN. Medium Point, and very Flexible " " 1,40 

No. 9. BANK PEN. Point Long and Flexible " " 1,40 

No. 10. CUSTOM-HOUSE PEN. Point Medium " " 1.60 

No, H. UNIVERSITY PEN. Point Medium, very Smooth and Flexible " " 1.60 

No. 12. EPISTOLAIRE PEN. Point very Fine and very Flexible. . . •' " 2.50 

No. 13. ENGROSSING PEN. Point Blunt and Smooth •' " 1.25 

No. 14. ARTISTIC PEN. Flexible, with Extra Fine Point " " 1.60 

No. 15. THE QUEEN. Point Extra Fine and Even •' " 1.60 

Caution. — We caution all who desire the genuine article against purchasing any 
" Spencerian" Pens, which have not the initials "I., P., B. & Co.," or, "Ivison, Phinney 
& Co.," on each Pen. 

^ FOR SALE BY DEALERS GENERALLY. 
J^^ Sample Card, containing all the 15 numbers, artistically arranged and securely- 
inclosed, sent by mail on receipt of 35 cents. 



102 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 

The American Standard Penmanship. 




The Spencerian Penmanship was first published in 1848, and has worthily maintained 
its position since then as the most original and most practical system of writing extant. It 
claims superiority over other systems in analysis and method; in systematically and 
progressively arranged copies ; in simplicity of style ; in correct ruling ; in its movement 
exercises ; and in its adaptability to rapid and elegant business writing. 

It is the accredited source from which the best penmen of the country have derived their 
knowledge and skill in the art. It is used in more Normal Schools and Business Colleges 
than all other systems combined. It is 7nore generally used than any other system. 
The COPY-BOOKS are comprised in Four Distinct Series :— 
I.— SCHOOL SERIES, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. 

n.— BUSINESS SERIES, Nos. 6 and 7. 

in.— LADIES' SERIES, Nos. 8 and 9. 

IV.— EXERCISE SERIES, Nos. 10, 11, and 12. 
INTERMEDIATE BOOK. 
Retail Price, 1 5 cents each. 
All the letters, small and capital, with twelve short sentences, are contained in the Inter- 
mediate Book. It is ruled to regulate the relative length of letters, and is undoubtedly the 
most practical and popular Copy-book published. 

The Spencerian Key, 

For the use of Teachers, Pupils, and Professional Penmen. Containing one hundi-ed and 
seventy-six pages, and hundreds of Illustrations. 

Price, by mail, in cloth $1.50 

Cloth extra, tinted paper 2.00 

Spencerian Charts of Writing and Drawing. 

SIX IN NUMBER. 
Large size, 24 by 30 inches ; on three cards. 
Small size, 19 by 24 inches ; on three cards. 
^=' They are so printed as to present the appearance of Superior Blackboard 
Writing. The letters can be seen across the school-room. 

A Series of Drawing Lessons is also represented upon the Charts, which, with the 
Letters, make them by far the most attractive and instructive Charts ever presented to 
the public. 

Large size, mounted, per express » $3.7.'» 

In sheets, per mail 2«50 

Small size, per express 1.80 

In sheets, per mail 0.90 

Teacher's G-uide 

To the proper use of Spencerian Copy-books and Charts. In pamphlet form. 30 pages. 

Spencerian Exercise Card, and Oblique Lines, 

Containing Fifty Exercises for confirming the hand in correct positions, and imparting 
to it free movements. The oblique lines regulate the slant in writing. Price, by express, 
50 cents per dozen ; by mail, 5 cents each. 

' Most liberal terms given on Copy-books furnished for Examination or Introduction. 



SCHOOL STATIONERY. 



103 




Lead Pencils, Pencil Piles, Holders, etc. 



LEAD PENCILS, FABER'S.-AU Grades. 

Imported — prices variable witli gold. 

4 Grades. — Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, in paper box. 

5 Grades. — Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, in wooden box. 
5 Grades. — Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, with knife and rubber, 

in wooden box. 
7 Grades. — ^Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, in wooden box. 
10 Grades. — Very finely graded, in wooden box. 

Any grade in dozen or gross packages. 
Eagle Pencils. — Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, and varied styles, 
in boxes. 



! i 




Pencil File, with Dust Box.— squires' Patent, for Lead and 
Slate Pencils. Price, 25 cents. 



The New Slate Pencil and Pen-Holder 

Is a new device, large enough to receive the regular slate pencils which are 
sold everywhere. It is long enough for a regular four inch slate pencil — the 
six inch may be broken in two. Every teacher knows how desir- 
able it is to have the children use a regular handle or holder when 
they write with slate pencil or pen. The irregular bits of slate pen- 
cils cramp the fingers, and injure them for writing. 

The cut illustrates it somewhat larger than regular size. 

They are put up in paper boxes, 100 in each box. Price, 5.00 

Specimen sent by mail for 10 cents. 



Propelling Pencils. 

Red Wood, with German silver slide. 
Black Wood, " " " 

Red Wood, ivory tips, German silver slide, 
Black Wood, " " 



per dozen, 1.75 
1.75 
2.25 

- " 2.25 



Stationers' G-um. 



White Rubber. — 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 30, 40, 60, 80, to the pound. 
Black Rubber.— 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 30, 40, 60, 80, to the pound. 



Artists' Materials of all kinds, at best rates. 



104 



SCHOOL STATIONERY. 



Pen and Pencil Baskets and Racks, etc. 





^lylc A. 



Style B. 



The Pen and Pencil Baskets are neat, light, and durable. They are imported. 

Style A has three sizes. Price, each 75, 1.00, 1.25 

Style B, only one size. " 1,88 




Squire's Patent Pen and Pencil Rack is intended for collecting, protecting from 
loss or injury, and distributing pens, lead pencils, and slate pencils in schools. Each 
pupil will get his own, without trouble or contention. It obviates the annoyance arising 
rom pupils having no pen, or a poor one — no pencil, or a short one. It is durably made 
of japanned tin. 

Directions for use. — Let one pupil pass the rack for each pupil to put his pen or 
pencil in the hole whose number has been previously assigned to him. Distribute in simi- 
lar manner. Price, by express (not mailable) 1.50 



Teachers' Pen Eacks. 




No. 1. 




No. 3. 




No. 2. 



No. 1, Adapted to ordinary inkstands each, .35 

2, French pattern, single, heavy for paper-weight " .40 

3, Bronze, new style " .50 

Many other styles to suit all tastes. 



SCHOOL STATIONERY. 105 

Writing, Exercise, and Composition Books, 

AND COMPOSITION PAPER. 

Blank Writing Books. — Superfine white paper, fancy paper covers, assorted colors. 

No. 1 — American School, 12 leaves. per dozen, 1^0.75 

No. 2.— High School, 14 leaves " 0.95 

Exercise Books. — Superfine white paper, plainly ruled. 

JTo 1. — Cap quarto, flexible covers, 16 leaves. " l.dO 

No. 2.— " " 24 leaves " 2.25 

No. 3.— " " 36 leaves " 8-00 

Composition Books. — Superfine white paper, cap quarto. 

No. 1. — Quarter bound, stiff cover, 24 leaves " 2.00 

No. 2. — Half bound, red .sheep, morocco paper sides, 50 leaves.,. . " 4.'S'5 

No. 3.— Half bound, " " " 84 leaves.... " ?,00 

No. 3x. — Full bound, " cloth sides, 84 leaves.... " 7.50 

No. 3(J. — Full bound, imitation morocco, gilt edges, 84 leaves... . " 12.50 

No. 4. — Half bound, red sheep, morocco paper sides, 112 leaves " 9.50 



COMPOSITION PAPER.-Eider's. 

The teacher who would improve his pupils in "good English," has invaluable aid in 
Mr. Rider's method of correcting compositions. Under the old plan, weary hours are 
passed in writing out corrections, which may not be understood by the pupil, even if he take 
trouble to read them. 

Rider's Composition Paper makes the pupil, not the teacher, correct the composition. 
At head of sheet is table of rules and laws which are usually neglected, each appropriately 
numbered. The teacher underlines errors, and places in margin a symbol directing pupil 
to proper item in table. The pupil can examine and analyze the principle violated and 
make corrections. Thus he inevitably becomes technically and thoroughly familiar with 
the requirements of the English language. 

First Series is for beginners in Composition who may be careless in penmanship, in 
spelling, in use of capitals, etc. Its proper use will prevent little faults, easy to acquire, 
but difficult to mend. 

Second Series reviews the greater points of the first, and attends to selection of words, 
grammatical construction, formation of sentences, paragraphing, condensing, etc., etc. 

Third Series has reference to rhetorical correctness and elegance, and the cultivation 
of the best style of finished English composition. 

As a time-saving invention it is most important, besides reducing composition to orderly 
method. 

The tables are neatly printed at the head of letter-paper, properly ruled with blue and 
red lines. 

Specimen sheets, by mail, pre-paid, 5c, Price per qnire, by express $0.30 



106 



SCHOOL STATIONERY. 



Our School Rulers. 



These Rulers are made specially for school purposes. They are well made 
of good, hard wood, polished. They are accurately marked in inches, half- 
inches, quarter-inches, and eighth-inches, stamped in black. One edge is 
properly bevelled. There are two sizes— one twelve inches long, and the other 
fifteen inches. The latter is recommended as most useful. 

Price, each 

(Specimen mailed, letter postage, 20 cents.) 
Liberal discount on a gross. 



.10 



O 




Moore's Cushioned Blotters. 

Walnut, small, plain each, 

Cedar, " " « 

Rosewood, polished " 

Paper, small, for each of above per packet, 

Walnut, large, plain each. 

Rosewood, large, polished " 

Paper, large per packet. 



^0.50 
.60 
.§5 
.10 
.75 

1.25 
.10 



Blotting Paper. 



Parker's Treasury, 80, 100, 120 pounds to ream, white or 

colored per quire, 1.20 to ^2.25 

Blotting Pads (12 pieces in packet) per packet, .10 



Erasers. 

Green's Patent Ink Erasers price per 100 pieces, $5.00 

Erasing Knives. — Joseph Rodgers & Sons' wood handle, 

bone handle, ivory handle, imported. Price variable 

with gold. 

Penholders. 

Accommodation, steel tips per gross, $0.60 

Double Conic, Cedar, small, steel tips " 2.20 

" " " medium, steel tips " 2.6?' 

" large, " " " 3.00 



Pen Racks of varied styles, prices each, 20 to 60 cents. 



O) 



-1 



SCHOOL STATIONERY. 107 

Papers— Note, Letter, Cap, Manuscript, Initial, 

AND STATIONERY CASES. 

The following are white wove, ruled, supei-fine, highly finished. They are neatly put 
up in manilla outside wrappers, with the numbers and weights marked on each package. 
The note and letter papers are in quarter-ream packages, and the cap papers in half-ream 
packages. 

Octavo Note— 3Va pounds to the ream price per ream, $1.25 

4 " '• " " " 1.40 

5 " " " » " 1,75 

Conunercial Note — i pounds to the ream " " i ,49 

5 " " '• " " 1.P75 

6 " " " " " 2.10 

'^ " " " " " 2.45 

Letter Paper— 8 pounds to the ream " " 2.80 

9 " " 3.15 

10 " " " " " 3.50 

12 " " " " .' 4.20 

Foolscap— 10 pounds to the ream " " 3.50 

12 " " " " " 4.20 

14 " " " " " 4.90 

Broad Bill Cap— 10 pounds to the ream " " 4.00 

12 " " " " " 4.80 

'■ 14 " " " " " 5.60 

Legal Cap — 10 pounds to the ream " " 4 00 

12 " " " '.'....'.'.'.'. •' " 4!80 

14 " " " " " 5.60 

Manuscript Papers. 

A carefully prepared set of rules for properly preparing manuscript for the press accompanies 

Nos. 2 and 3. 

Na 1.— Students' Manuscript, size S^/^ x 8 inches, flat sheets for pencil, with three perfora- 
tions at top for affixing to the eyeletted case — ruled on one side per ream $1 .00 

No. 2.— Editors' Manuscript, size 5 x 10 inches, flat sheet, with three perforations at top of 

sheet for tying them together in parts or chapters • per ream 1.20 

No. 3 Contributors' Manuscript, like No. 2, somewhat thicker " 1.80 

Na 4. — Authors' Manuscript, size 6 x 10 inches, flat sheet, otherwise like No. 3.. . " 2.25 



Initial Stationery. 



This is very handsomely put up in paper boxes, containing one quire ladies' note, with envelopes 
to match. 

Wo. 1 Everett, white wove per box, ,25 

No. 2.— Siddons, rose tint, ornamented box, perfumed " .30 

No. 3.— Oriental, auburn tint, hinged neck box, ornamented with colored plates. . . " .60 

No. 4 — Offered and Accepted, lavender tint, ornamented with large colored plates, " .45 

No. 5.— Galaxy, white wove, ornamented box " .30 

This initial stationery will he mailed for 10 cents extra for postage. 



Stationery Oases. 



No. 1 — With three apartments ; for letter paper, note paper, and envelopes each, 1.56 

No. 2 — With fonr apartments, and drawer for containing stamps, etc " 2.50 

Wo. 3 — With three apartments, and small traye for holding pins, stamps, wafers, pen- 
cils, etc " 2.'J'0 



108 



SCHOOL STATIONERY, 



Paper Weights, Folders, Clips, Mucilage, etc. 






Paper Weights. — Bronze, glass, iron — various styles and sizes ... .each, ,20 to $1.75 
Paper Folders, and Check Cutters. — Japanned tin, 2 to 4 inches wide, each, .20 
Ivory Polders, and Paper Knives. — 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 inches long, 

each 15 to ,75 

Letter Clips. 

A variety of styles and sizes, each, 
j$0,15 to 1.25. 

Board Clips.— Olotli Sides. 

Cap, Iron $0.75 

Letter, " 63 

• Note, " 52 

lOHr ^'^P' ^""^^s *^ 

m^^^ Letter, « 70 

Note, " 60 

These clips are supplied with the spring either on the side or on the end, as may be desired. 



mmMMm 

a<ffliiiil_. '^^'^^ 

No. 1. No. 4. 

Morgan's Patent Eeservoir Mucilage Stands. 

No. 1. — Pressed Flint Glass, with brush each, $ 1.50 

2.— Flint Glass, with brush " .40 

3.— Flint Glass, with brush " .40 

4. — Pressed Flint Glass, with brush " 1.50 

Stickwell & CO.'S Mucilage.— Made from pure Gum Arabic. 

Three Ounce Cones, with cup and brush per dozen, 1,75 

Eight Ounce " " " " ^'**^ 

Pints, glass bottles " 6.00 

Quarts, glass bottles " 11.00 




SCHOOL STATIONERY. 



109 



Envelopes. — Letter and Official Sizes. 









Size:!. (. 


5 


6 


6} 


Ci 


7 


8J 


9 










N. Gov. 


3}x5J 


3f x6 


Six 6} 


3|x6f 


3ix8f 


3|x8| 




No.Pa'r 
















MATJILIJi, 




115 


$1 50 


$1 70 


$1 90 


$2 20 




$3 00 


$3 on 








180 


1 65 


1 80 


1 90 


2 30 


$3 30 


3 20 


3 30 






X X 


225 


3 20 


3 GO 


3 80 


4 00 




5 80 


6 00 


GOLD, 






203 

2758 


1 40 
1 90 


1 CO 

2 20 


2 40 


2 90 














3757 


2 10 


2 40 


2 60 


3 CO 


4 30 


4 40 


4 60 








1475 


2 15 


2 40 


2 CO 


3 00 






5 00 






X 


475 


2 35 


2 70 


2 90 


3 40 






5 30 




JM'e 


X X 


2040 


2 70 


3 15 


3 30 


3 80 






6 00 




i M'8 


X 


5040 
3245 


2 85 
2 50 


3 30 
2 90 


3 50 
3 10 


4 00 






6 50 






X 


4245 


2 10 


3 15 


3 30 


3 80 










i M's 


X X 


1575 


3 00 


3 50 


3 70 












i M's 


X X 


575 


3 25 


3 75 


3 90 


4 50 








LIGHT BUi'i", 




206S 


1 90 


2 20 


2 40 


2 90 






4 50 








3776 


2 10 


2 40 


2 60 


3 00 




4 40 


4 60 






X 


4545 


2 35 


2 70 


2 90 


3 40 


4 80 


5 00 


5 30 






X 


477 


2 50 


2 90 


3 10 












i M's 


X X 


635 


2 85 


3 30 


3 50 


4 00 






6 50 




i M's 


X X 


563 


3 00 


3 50 


3 70 














X 


4^75 


2 70 


3 15 


3 30 


3 80 


5 50 


6 00 


6 20 




i M's 


X X 


5635 


3 25 


3 75 


3 90 


4 50 


7 00 


7 50 


7 50 




} M's 


XXX 


6600 


3 SO 


4 40 


4 60 










CORN, 




X 


495 


2 35 


2 70 


2 90 












I M's 


X X 


5030 


2 t;5 


3 30 


3 50 


4 00 










i M's 


X X 
X 


530 
1495 


3 o;) 

2 50 


3 50 
2 90 


3 70 
3 10 














X 


4950 


2 711 


3 15 


3 30 


3 80 


5 50 


6 00 


6 20 




} M's 


X X 


5725 


3 25 


3 75 


3 90 


4 50 


7 00 


7 50 


7 50 




i M's 


XXX 


7700 


3 SO 


4 40 


4 GO 










OAITARY, 






3036 


2 10 


2 40 


2 60 


3 00 






4 60 








1045 


2 35 


2 70 


2 90 


3 40 






5 30 






X 


2045 


2 50 


2 90 


3 10 


3 60 












X X 


1515 


3 (lO 


3 50 


3 70 














X 


1*2 


2 70 


3 15 


3 30 


3 80 


5 50 


6 00 


6 20 




} M's 


X 


515 


3 25 


3 75 


3 90 


4 50 






7 50 




i M's 


XXX 


5500 


3 80 


4 40 


4 GO 










ORANGE, 




X 


340 


2 70 


3 15 


3 30 


3 80 










} M's 


X X 


504 


3 25 


3 75 


3 90 


4 50 








MELON, 


} M's 


XX 


595 


3 25 


3 75 


3 90 


4 50 








WHITE, 






128 


1 90 


2 20 


2 40 


2 90 














3136 


2 70 


3 15 


3 30 


3 80 


5 50 


6 00 


6 20 






X 


215 


2 35 


2 70 


2 90 








5 30 




i M's 


X X 


532 


2 85 


3 30 


3 50 








6 50 




i M's 


X 


1340 


3 10 


3 60 


3 75 












J M's 


X 


134 


3 25 


3 75 


3 90 


4 50 


7 00 


6 40 


6 60 




J M's 


X X 


13 


3 60 


4 00 


4 25 












J M's 


X X 


106 


3 75 


4 20 


4 40 


5 00 


7 20 


7 80 


8 00 




J M's 


X X 


I'JfiO 


3 75 


4 20 


4 40 


5 00 










i- M's 


XXX 


126 


4 40 


5 15 


5 40 











Envelopes not designated as " \ M's" are put up in i; M's. For \ M's add 15c. per M. 
to price of ^ M's. Envelopes designated as " ^ M's" can be put up in A M's at 15c. per 
M. less. 

Note. — " M." represents one thousand. 

X 's are arbitrary marks, representing thickness of paper. 



no 



SCHOOL STATIONERY, 



Post-office Boxes, Stationery Cases, and Calendars. 



Post-office Boxes. 




!',fi! "I n I I'll itm 1 1 iim II I 




rnsrcmn.: r\c\rr rM/ifKKi 



"Hl 



No. 1, One part, " Post-office," each, .§4 

2, Two parts, " Test-office and Delivcrv," " 1.20 

3, Three parts, " Post-office, Packet, and Delivery," " 1,50 




Stationery Cases. 



No. 1, Is a very convenient article for holding let- 
ter and note paper, and places for envelopes ; 
also, with a drawer for containing stamps, etc., 
each 2.40 

No. 2, With three compartments, for billheads or 
papers; also, contains small trays, for holding 
pins, stamps, wafers, pens, lead pencils, etc., 
each 2.60 

No. 3, With three compartments, for letter paper, 
note paper, and envelopes each, 1.50 



Calendars. 




No. 1, Showing day of month each, .40 

2, Showing month, and day of month " .50 

3, Showing month, day of week, and day of month " .65 



SCHOOL HTATIONERY. 



Ill 



Drawing Papers, Bristol Boards, Drawing Books, 

ANI> ERASABLE TABLETS. 

DrajWing Papers. — Whatman's English, imported. Prices variable with gold. 



Cap, 

Demy, 

Medium, 



14 X 17, rough or smooth, 
17 X 22, '• " 



Jioyal, I 'J X 24, rough or smooth, 

Kupcr Royal, 19 x 27, " " 

Imperial, 22 x 30, " " 



Cap, 

Demy, 

Medium, 



G-erman Drawing Papers.— Variai>io with gold. 



14 X 17, 
1 .5 X 20, 
17 x22. 



Koyal, 19x24, 

Super Royal, 19 x 27, 
Imperial, 22 x .30, 



Cap, 



Demy, 



Bristol Boards.— Reynolds & Son's best. Variable with gold. 
two sheets thick. - - • Medium, two sheets thick. 



three 

four 

two 

three 

four 



Royal, 



three 

four 

two 

three 

four 



Drawing Books. — interleaved with tissue paper. 

per dozen. 



No. 1. — Demy, 4to. printed covers, 8 leaves, 
No. 2. " " " " 16 " 

No. 3. " " " " 24 " - 



$1.00 
1.40 
1.75 



First-Olass Cold Pressed Drawing Paper. 

Interleaved with tissue paper. 

No. 1. — Cap, 4to fju.'irter bound, 12 leaves, - - per dozen, 1.88 

No. 2. " " " " 24 " - - " 3.75 

No. 3. " " full doth gilt, 48 " - - - - " 6.00 

No. 4. — Demy, " fjuarter Ixjund, 1? " - - - " Si. 38 

No. 5. " " full cloth gilt, 24 *• - - - - " 4.50 

No. 6. " " " " 48 " - - " 8.75 

No. 7. — Medium, " f]uartcr bound, 12 " - - - - " 2.75 

No. 8. " " " " 24 " - - " 5.50 

No. 9. " " half " 48 " - - - " 10.00 

Erasable Tablets.— white.— (Use a .soft lead j)encil— erase with 
a damp cloth oi* sponge.) 

Elementary Drawing Tablet, .... per dozen, 3.00 

Progressive " "..... " 3.00 

Elementary Writing "..... " 3.00 

Leaf Tablet, size 4i x 7 inches, ....-" l.OO 

Spelling Tablet, ruled for 40 words, size .5x8 inches, - - " 1.20 

A variety of styles for the pocket and office. 



112 



SiMlOOl, MATKUIAL. 



Lunch Boxes, School Bags, etc. 

1 




FOLDED FLAT 



Tlio Patout Foldiug Luuoli Box. 

Tliis is !\ uovolty, iiml, doubtloss, will lio in hrisk tliMiisuul, luM'siiiso, when ii'liovcil of tlio 
il.'uly nitions, it is liaiuly mu\ vom]>!U't. It folds n|> to onh thivo tinios tho thioknoss of tlu' 
tin of which it is iwiulo 

Ti-ii-o 0.50 

l.ihonvl discount >\hoii (jii!Uilitic< arc imrcliiiscil. 




Tho Froiicli School Bags 



an'' mailo of vorv lit:;ht and dmablc material. There ai\> two kinds — white and eoUm'd — 

fonr si/.cs of each kind. 

No. I . price 0.6d 

• -. • 75 

•• ;t, 1.00 

•• 4. l.Sift 





Oval I'alm lAiil School Vali.sc. . 
Ni{uaiY r!>]mlA\»f SchiHil Vnliso. 






HOIIOOJ. MA'J'KUIAh. 



113 



Eook-Carricrs, Easch, Rests, etc. 

THE PATENT BOOK-OAKRIER, for Ikyn and Qirlfj 



The vlarna((fc which \x>i>kH rw/;ivc lx;tw<:<;n 
horrift urid wiliool iH j^rtnU-.r tliari IhoiT riw;<;»- 
hitry w<;ar and tear when in regular liw;. The 
w>rrimori JM«>k-Ktraj) in a mnmuiMuji U\ kx-xping 
bookH together; hut i» ttadly <J«;MtructJve to the 
bindingH. 

The cut reprewjritH an invention u> o[(vi;it< 
this (liflieulty. It findH great favor with 
tcacherH, pupilH, and parentK, and h j^roving :>. 
tmei-AiHH. 'J'he cut hIw^wb it jntrtly filiwJ wiU. 
iMMjkn and Hlutc. It in MirnpJe and durable. 




J'rie* 



«>.5<> 




Moore'H Needio Gun Book- 
Olamp iH a latvcj invention for the 
:,;ifne purj^ow;. Jt wind»i up with a 
w)i<:/;l, h/;]d hy a rhU-.iuA under the 
handle. When OfK;rat/!/J it rnakeo a 
l/yi:n]uir " \i<irw. fiddle" noiw;, whieh 
if, ¥M\>]i<>mA, \iy ?/)Ui';, U) \)i; ffjUDU; t^; 

the ean» of w;h'x;l childnjn. 



\'r\i-M 



OAO 



KENDALL'S BOOK-REST, for the Desk or Library Table. 

The tjiiTiv(^i'u;niA oi & w<t]]'BAa,]ivA r»*t 
for the UkA, and the a/lvantag<;« of a 
prof;<;r angle for ea»sy virion, are U)*) fully 
ri;(ii>inn/j-A \iy all readcrm t*; r<^pjire rib 
cuitbion here. 

Kkhuam/h Rkut for the fKx>k M»ai<^» t/t 
<WK nrrifdi; af/'fiarfjJ.UH aJi t.liA ri'ipilmUM i,j a 
l)(crf*'/i Ixx/k rt-M — for any mv, <ii U/f^k. 

It <Jin-,h\.n of thr«;<; standard-, unit»;d at 
the top hy a rnetalli/; hea/1, whiefi allow*! 
the outHide titandard>« t/> of^f^n like tb; hrgts 
of a ry,mpas!», while the middle If^ tnm^ 
l»arrk. To thi» trifKxl Jm atta^;hwl the c.helf 
wliieh Carrie), the fingfrrH or HjmngH for 
holding the fxxA ./^K^n. The whole can 

f"; " unHhipf,<^l" in a w^x.nd, and fohM flat, a^ etutily m h carr^en t/;r'* 
mailable.) ' i - 

Prir« 




rule. fN<»( 
... 1.00 



y^/^ 



((. 



114 



SCHOOL STATIONERY. 

Rewards. 

EEWAED-OF-MEEIT OAEDS. 



No. 1, 


size. If X 2f, in one color, for day-schools. 


per hundred 


0.30 


" 2, 


" 


l^x3f, 


" - - - 


- 


.40 


" 3, 


" 


2^^ X 3f , in two colors. 


«< _ _ 


" 


.70 


" 4, 


" 


2i X 3i 


Sunday-schools, 


- 


.70 


" 5, 


" 


2| X 5, 


day-schools. 


- 


.S4 


" 6, 


« 


3 x5i 


" 


- 


1.12 


" 7, 


" 


3 x5i. 


Sunday-schools, 


- 


1.12 


" 8, 


" 


2f X 4|, illuminated, " 


day-schools, 


- 


2.00 


" 9, 


« 


2f X 4i 


'« 


. 


1.50 


" 10, 


" 


2^ X 4, in one color. 


« 


« 


.67 


" 11. 


" 


3 x5i 


" 


- 


.90 


" 12, 


« 


2^ X 3i 


" 


- 


.72 


" 13, 


" 


1% X 4i, illuminated. 


" 


- 


2.22 


" u, 


" 


2^ X 3^, in one color. 


Sunday-schools, 


- 


.50 


" 15, 


" 


2| X 4^, illuminated, 


" 


<« 


1.40 


" 16, 




2| X 3|, colored, 


day-schools. 


- 


.95 


" 17, 




2\ X 4^, illuminatea, 


Sunday-schools, 


n 


2.44 


" 18, 




2| X 4i 


" 


. 


1.70 


" 19, 




3 X 5i, colored. 


day-schools. 


" 


1.40 


" 20, 




2 X 3^, in one color, 


Sunday-schools, 


- 


.50 


" 21, 




2| X 4i, 


« 


- 


.72 


" 22, 




If X 2i 


Jlay-schools, 


- 


.40 


" 23, 




2| X 3i, 


« 


« 


.62 


" 24, 




2| X 4^, illuminated, 


j« 


" 


2.44 


" 25, 




1\ X 3|, in two colors, 


Sunday-schools, 


" 


.64 



Thfc illuminated kinds are put up in envelopes, 10 cards in each envelope. 
A discount allowed when ordered by the 1000. 



TESTIMONIALS —Appropriate Designs. 



Neatly lithographed on heavy white paper. 
No. 1, size, 62 in. X 9? m. 
" 2, " 8 in. X 10 in. 
" 3, « 10 in. X 12 in. 



per dozen, 0.50 
.60 
.72 



Special Testimonials or. Diplomas to order. 



